I 




Qass. 



Book 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



AN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

IN FAMILIAR CONVERSATIONS, 

INDUCTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE; 

UNITING AND HARMONIZING THEORY AND PRACTICE, 
AND ADAPTED TO ORA^^ TEACHING. 



By JONATHAN BADGLEY. 



.llfSfO^r^- 



NEW YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 

1875. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the j-ear 1874, by 

JONATHAN BADGLEY» 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. 



Electroiyped by Smith & McDougal, 82 Beekman St., N. Y. 



dO]s[¥j{>f'i'^ 



— »-jvv»^fc*r<t-«— 



PAGE 

Introductory remarks 7 

Grammar defined and compared with 

rhetoric and logic 8 

Division of grammar into four parts. 8 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

■'''ocal and articulate sounds 9 

etters lo 

owels and consonants lo 

.ates and semi-vowels ii 

•xbials, dentals, and palatals 12 

.ir alp'.Tabet imperfect 13 

liferent sounds of vowels 14 

Afferent sounds of consonants 14 

3. lent letters 15 

"^.iementary sound? 16 

.etters substituted for other letters. . 17 

Importance of a perfect alphabet 18 

Syllables and words 20 

Rules for spelling 21 

Exercise in spelling 22 

ETYMOLOGY. 

The parts of speech 27 

Speech and language compared 27 

Exclamations 29 

Nouns 33 

Pronouns 35 

Adjectives 39 

Verbs 43 

Prepositions 52 

Adverbs 59 

Connectives 62 

Exercise in making sentences 68 

Predicate adjectives and predicate 

nouns and pronouns 72 

Why verbs should not be called pred- 
icates , 74 



PAGE 

Exercise in making definitions of a 

sentence 76 

What constitutes a sentence dis- 
cussed 77 

Proper and common nouns 80 

Collective, abstract, verbal, and sen- 
tential nouns 82 

When a proper noun becomes a com- 
mon noun 82 

A common noun sometimes used as 

a proper noun 83 

Different sorts of pronouns 83 

Gender 85 

Number 88 

Person 91 

Case 95 

Declension of nouns and pronouns.. 97 

Classification of adjectives 99 

Classification of adverbs 100 

Comparison 100 

Inductive exercise in parsing nouns 

and pronouns 103 

Exercise in parsing adjectives and 

adverbs no 

Derivation m 

Models for parsing nouns and pro- 
nouns, adjectives and adverbs, 
prepositions and connectives.... 113 

Regular and irregular verbs 133 

List of irregular verbs 134 

Transitive and intransitive verbs. . . . 139 

Voices 141 

Transitive verbs used in both voices. 143 

Moods 148 

Tenses — 155 

Participles 163 

Conjugation of verbs 165 

The impropriety of doubhng the verb 
to be 183 



VI 



CONTEMTS. 



PAGE 

Principal, auxiliary, and defective 

verbs 186 

The application of shall and will . . 190 
Remarks on the tenses of the sub- 
junctive mood 191 

A brief review of verbs . . 193 

Models for parsing verbs 196 

Promiscuous exercises in parsing 203 

The construction of difficult sen- 
tences shown, and the hard words 
parsed 215 

SYNTAX. 

The rules of syntax 229 

Notes to the rules of syntax 231 

Apposition and predication 240 

Nominatives independent 244 

Antecedents and subjects 246 

Infinitives and participles 249 

Adjectives and adverbs 252 

Ellipsis 253 

General principles 255 

Exercise in parsing and correcting 

sentences 259 

Models for correcting sentences with- 
out parsing 260 

Sentences to be corrected 264 

Corrections of false syntax 290 

Analysis of sentences 302 

Phrases, clauses, sentences, and para- 
graphs 306 

Exercise in analyzing sentences 310 

Sentences and paragraphs to be an- 
alyzed 325 



PAGB 

PROSODY. 

Elocution 327 

Exercise in reading 328 

Remarks and directions 329 

Emphasis 331 

Pauses 332 

Tones 335 

Inflections 335 

Punctuation 336 

Directions for using the points of 

punctuation 337 

Exercise in writing them 343 

Sentences to be written by the teacher 

and punctuated by the pupils 345 

Directions for using capital letters. . . 347 
Sentences to be read by the teacher 
for the pupils to write and punc- 
tuate 348 

Definitions and rules 352 

Sentences to be punctuated 363 

Versification 365 

Poetic feet 365 

Iambic, trochaic, anapestic, and dac- 
tylic verse 366 

Definitions of poetic terms 369 

Melody, harmony, and poetic ex- 
pression 370 

THE FIGURES OF 
SPEECH. 

Grammatical figures 374 

Rhetorical figures 376 



PREFACE 



TO improve the mode of teaching English Grammar 
is the principal object of this work. It represents 
a teacher giving instruction to a class of learners in familiar 
conversations, leading them along inductively, advancing 
gradually from the easy to the difficult, explaining abstruse 
principles by means of objects that address the senses, 
keeping their attention fixed on one thing at a time till 
it is clearly understood, presenting them an easy mode of 
gradual combination, drilling them in making sentences, 
in parsing and correcting them, and at every step reducing 
theory to practice. 

It is confidently believed that these grammatical exer- 
cises come as near to oral teaching as any thing can in 
books, and that they can be very easily made such by good 
teachers, if they use them in the manner here presented. 
I would say to pupils and to private students, if you read 
these conversations carefully and drill yourselves in all the 
exercises they contain and recommend, you will require 
but little other help in learning grammar. You are not 
expected to commit them to memory, but to read them 



VI PREFACE. 

understandingly and practice what you learn, as you do 
in studying arithmetic. 

This book contains no visionary theory. It is the result 
of much experience and observation in the school-room ; 
where we have found that even English Grammar, dry and 
tedious as it is considered, can be rendered pleasing and 
attractive, if we teach it orally. In this manner it is 
successfully taught in many of our best schools. No other 
method of instruction is so well adapted to the capacity 
of children. After carefully comparing several difierent 
methods, and giving each of them a thorough trial, I have 
prepared an easy, practical system of oral teaching, for the 
use of schools and private students. 

Fellow-teachers and my dear young friends, my task is 
finished, and another grammar is before you. I have done 
vfhat I could to make it worthy of your approbation. It 
has cost me many toilsome days and thoughtful nights. 
If you receive the benefit intended, I shall be abundantly 
rewarded. I would be glad to lighten all your labors, to 
cheer you in your studies with the clear sunshine of 
science, to scatter roses in your paths of learning, and 

make all your tasks delightful. 

JONATHAN BADGLET. 
New York, January 1, 1875. 



CONVERSATION I. 

A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF GRAMMAR AND A STRICT EXAMINATION 
OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Mr. Smith. — As tbis is the first day of our school, I have 
not had sufficient time to ascertain your qualifications. 
Good reading indicates a cultivated mind, and is an excel- 
lent test of scholarship in classifying pupils that are stran- 
gers to the teacher. Most of you in this class read very 
well, and seem to have considerable knowledge of our lan- 
guage. Some of you appear to be grammarians. I will 
talk with you a little while about grammar, and see how 
well you understand it. 

James. — Our best readers don't pretend to be gramma- 
rians. There are only five or six of us that ever studied 
grammar; and we consider it entirely useless. I've com- 
mitted it to memory and recited it half a dozen times. I 
can repeat the definitions, rules, and notes, the conjugations 
and declensions, as easily as the alphabet. But I can speak 
and write no better than the other boys, who have never 
studied it at all. In learning and repeating grammar like a 
parrot, how much precious time I've wasted ! how much 
tedious study I've endured without acquiring any useful 
knowledge ! 

Mr. 8. — You can acquire no useful knowledge of any 
art or science by committing theory to memory without 
reducing it to practice. What would you know^about arith- 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

metic or algebra, if yon should commit it all to memory 
without ciphering or solving any problems ? You must 
practice what you learn. 

Grammar is the art of making coiTect sentences, and 
showing the nature and use of all their parts. 

Grammar has respect to single sentences : rhetoric and 
logic regulate a whole discourse ; combining and arranging 
all its parts so as to render it the most convincing, pleasing, 
and persuasive. A speech or composition may be faulty in 
regard to rhetoric and logic, though every sentence, separately 
considered, be correct. To speak or write a whole discourse 
correctly, we must be good practical grammarians, rhetori- 
cians, an.d logicians. Rhetoric requires elegance and force, 
as well as correctness : logic requires correct reasoning prop- 
erly expressed. We may express our thoughts correctly, but 
not elegantly and forcibly; and our reasoning may be defec- 
tive or improperly expressed. Therefore, a single sentence 
may contain a violation of the principles of rhetoric or logic, 
and yet be gi-ammatically correct. 

Grammar is divided into four parts ; Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography is the art of writing words correctly and 
showing the nature and use of letters. 

Etymology is the art of classifying words correctly and 
showing all their variations and their derivation. 

Syntax is the proper use of words in making sentences. 

Prosody is the proper pronunciation of words and sen- 
tences ; comprising orthoepy, elocution, punctuation, and 
versification. 

Spelling and pronunciation must be learned from the 
spelling-book and dictionary, and by careful observation and 
assiduous practice in reading, writing, and speaking. When 
you are doubtful of the spelling or pronunciation of a word 
consult your dictionary, and while so doing learn its defini- 
tion also. 



OETHOGEAPHT. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

I suppose yon know the sounds of all our letters, and 
can distinguish the vowels and consonants, mutes, and semi- 
vowels. Will some of you tell me what you know about the 
elements of language ? 



VOCAL AND ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

J. — The elements of spoken language are vocal and 
articulate sounds ; and letters are the elements of written 
language. Articulate sounds are so called, because they are 
articulated; forming, as it were, the joints of vocal sounds. 
We frame our syllal^les and words by opening and closing 
the mouth, or joining and disjoining the organs of speech, 
and thus produce a proper intermixture of vocal and artic- 
ulate sounds to give fluency and melody to language. " The 
sweet music of speech," like instrumental music, is pro- 
duced by skillfully opening and closing the apertures of the 
musical instrument. Articulation is peculiar to the human 
voice. Brutes can utter vocal sounds by opening the mouth, 
but they can not articulate them so as to form words. 

Ruth. — Are not all the sounds we use in speaking 
vocal ? 

J. — Speech consists of vocal and articulate sounds, so 
blended together as to form words and sentences easy to the 
speaker and agreeable to the hearer. Vocal sounds consti- 
tute the limbs and body of language ; and articulate sounds, 
its joints. We cannot speak v/ithout opening the mouth. 
Articulation interrupts the voice by closing its passage with 
the organs of speech, producing certain modifications of it 
which we call articulate sounds. As articulation is the 



10 EITGLISH GRAMMAR. 

distinguishing characteristic of the human voice, all the 
sounds we use in speaking are, by some grammarians, called 
articulate sounds. 

A vocal sound is a sound of the human voice proceeding 
from an open mouth. 

An articulate sound is a sound produced by bringing 
some of the organs of speech together, so as to obstruct the 
passage of the voice. 

An elementary sound is a simple vocal or articulate 
sound. 

A complex sound is two or more elementary sounds 
united. 

LETTERS. 

A letter is the sign of an elementary or complex sound, 
used in writing or printing. 

All the letters of a language arranged in the customary 
order are called an alphabet. 

Our alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 



VO^^^ELS AND CONSONANTS. 

Mr. S. — As you repeat the alphabet, take particular 
notice, and see Avhicb letters you pronounce with the mouth 
open, and which you pronounce by shutting the mouth, 
or making some of the organs of speech touch each other 
so as to obstruct the passage of the voice; then tell me 
which letters represent vocal sounds, and which represent 
articulate sounds. 

J. — A, e, i, 0, and u, represent vocal sounds. Therefore, 
they are called vowels. Tbe other letters represent articu- 
late sounds, and are called consonants. 

A vov/el is a letter that is pronounced with the mouth 
open. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

A consonant is a letter that is pronounced by closing the 
mouth so as to obstruct the passage of the voice. 

A diplithong is two vowels united in one syllable; as in 
toil, toy, noun, now, sue, neic, sea, rain, day, they. 

A triphthong is three vowels united in one syllable; as in 
duoy, beauty, vieiv, adieu. 

B. — In repeating the alphabet, Ave only tell tbe names of 
our letters. We must observe what sound a letter has in 
some word or syllable, to tell whether it is a vowel or conso- 
nant. The names of the vowels are vocal sounds, being the 
same as their long sounds ; but the names of the consonants 
consist of vocal and articulate sounds united. We cannot 
spell the name of a consonant without a vowel; but the 
name of a vowel requires no other letter to spell it. 

Mary. — Can you spell the names of to and y without 
using other letters ? Are they always consonants ? 

R. — At the beginning of a word or syllable, lu is a conso- 
nant; and so is y, if it is followed by a vowel in the same 
syllable ; as in lue, ye, ivine, young, luestivard, vineyaixl. 

When i has the sound of y before a vowel at the begin- 
ning of a syllable, it is a consonant ; as in Spaniard, alien, 
folio, genius. 

W after d, s, or t, and u after g, q, or s, before a vowel 
in the same syllable, are consonants; as in dtvell, swell, 
tiuine, anguish, conquest, persuade. 

At the beginning of a word, u long performs the office 
of a vowel and consonant ; for the mouth is first closed and 
then opened in pronouncing it ; as in union, usury. 

In all other situations, i, u, w, and y, are vowels. 

A, e, and o, are always vowels. 

MUTES AND SEMI-VOV/ELS. 

Mr. S.—l will now pronounce a few syllables containing 
all the consonants, to show you how their sounds differ 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

from their names. Ba, ca, da, fa, ga, lia, ja, ka, la, ma, na, pa, 
qua, ra, sa, ta, va, wa, ya, za ; be, ce, de, fe, ge, he, je, ke, le, 
me, ue, pe, que, re, se, te, ve, we, ye, ze ; ab, ac, ad, af, ag, 
aj, ak, al, am, an, ap, ar, as, at, av, ax, az ; eb, ec, ed, ef, eg, 
ej, ek, el, em, en, ep, er, es, et, ev, ex, ez. 

You have now heard the sounds of all the consonants. 
In making some of these sounds we press the organs of 
speech so close together as to stop the passage of the voice 
entirely ; as in ha, ca, da, ga, ka, pa, qua, ta ; ab, ac, ad, ag, 
ah, ap, at. Therefore h, d, Ic, p, q, t, and c and ^ hard, are 
called mutes. In sounding the other consonant we leave 
a little opening for the voice to pass, so that their sounds 
can be continued without the help of vowels ; and, because 
they are about half-way between vowels and mutes, they are 
called semi- vowels. 

A mute is a consonant that entirely stops the passage of 
the voice. 

A semi- vowel is a consonant that leaves a little opening 
for the voice to pass. 

The semi-vowels I, m, n, and r, are also called liquids, 
because their sounds are so fluent that they flow into the 
sounds of other consonants, and readily unite with them. 



LABIALS, DENTALS, AND PALA- 
TALS 

Take particular notice what organs of speech we use in 
pronouncing these syllables : ba, ca, da, fa, ga, lia,ja, lea, la, 
ma, na, pa, qua, ra, sa, ta, va, to a, ya, za ; be, ce, de, fe, ge, 
etc. 

/.—We make the sounds of b,f, m, p, i\ and to, with the 
lips ; the sounds of d, j, I, n, r, s, t, y, z, and c and g soft, 
with the tongue and teeth ; and the sounds of h, h, q, and c 
and g hard, with the tongue and palate. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

Mr. S. — This gives rise to the organical division of con- 
sonants into three classes; labials, dentals, and palatals. 

A labial is a consonant that is pronounced by bringing 
the lips together. 

A dental is a consonant that is pronounced by tonching 
the tongue to the teeth or gums. 

A palatal is a consonant that is pronounced by obstruct- 
ing the passage of the voice with the palate. 

The labials are, l, /, «i, p, v, w, and luh. 

The dentals are, d, j, ?, n, r, s, f, x, y, Zy sh, th, and c and 
g soft. 

The palatals are, 7i, k, q, ng, and c and g hard. 



OUR ALPHABET IMPERFECT. 

Henry. — Why do you use tu and h together as labials, 
sh and th as dentals, and 7ig as a palatal ? 

Mr. S. — Because they represent elementary sounds that 
are not represented by any single letters. Our alphabet is 
imperfect. If we had a perfect alphabet, it would contain 
as many letters as there are elementary sounds in our lan- 
guage, and every letter would be named according to its 
sound. Every elementary sound would then be represented 
by a single letter, and no letter ever represent more than 
one sound. The sound of every vowel would be its name, 
and the name of every consonant resemble its sound, and 
thus present a perfect system of phonetic spelling, leading 
little children to the proper use of every letter. Now the 
names of a, e, i, o, and u, are their long sounds, and do not 
resemble tlieir other sounds. All the other letters, except 
h, q, IV, and y, and c and g hard, are adapted to phonetic 
spelling ; for their names resemble their sounds. 

If we should call li he or ha, w we, y ye, g hard ga, and 
q kwe (dropping the u after it), these names would adapt 



14 EKGLISH GEAMMAR- 

tliem to phonetic spelling. C and q are unnecessary, because 
q has the sound of Ic, and c the sound of h, s, oy z', as in 
queen, came, circle, suffice. X represents a complex sound, 
and is equivalent to Ics, as in tax, or gz, as in exist. So do 
(J soft and j, being ecjuivalent to dzli ; as in age, gem, jaw, 
adjure. Ch has the sound of tsli, as in church. 



DIFFERENT SOUNDS OF VOWELS. 

M. —Will you tell us the sounds of all the vowels ? 

Mr. S. — A has five sounds : the long, the short, the me- 
dial, the flat, and the broad ; as in ca2)e, cap. care, car, call. 

E has two sounds : the long and the short ; as in me, 
met. 

I has two sounds : the long and the short ; as in pine, 
pin. 

has three sounds : the long, the short, and the slender; 
as in robe, rob, prove. 

U has three sounds : the long, the short, and the" obtuse ; 
as in pure, pun, pull. 



DIFFERENT SOUNDS OF CONSO- 
NANTS. 

Has any of the consonants more than one sound ? 

J. — Certainly. C before e, i, or y, has the sound of 5 ; 
as in cell, city, mercy. In other situations it has the sound 
of Ic ', as in cat, clean, cold, curl, critic, conduct. 

G before e, i, or y, generally has a soft sound like that 
of j ; as in gender, page, ginger, Egyj^it. But in all other 
situations, and frequently l)efore e, i, or y, it has its own pe- 
culiar hard sound ; as in gale, gear, gig, goy glory, guggle, 
groggy. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

N has a pure sound ; as in noon, pinion, dinner, finish, 
handy ; and also the sound of ng ; as in 2^inh, dingle, finger, 
hanker, conquer, anchor. 

S has a harsh, hissing sound ; as in sit, hiss, dismiss, 
assist, assemble ; and a smooth sound like that oi z; as in 
his, deserve, opi^ose, resemble. 

X has the sound of Ics ; as in wax, extend, exercise ; and 
the sound Qigz', as in examine, exert, exhibit. 

Th has a sharp sound ; as in thin, thistle, breath; and a 
soft sound ; as in then, this, breathe. 

None of the other consonants has more than one sound. 



SIJLENT LETTERS. 

Mr. 8. — What have you to say about silent letters ? 

J, — B before t or after m in the same syllable, and g be- 
fore 7n or n, are silent ; and so are h after r or a vowel in the 
same syllable ; Jc before n ; I before /, Jc, or 7n, if it is pre- 
ceded by a ; n after I or m ; p before n, s, or t ; and tu be- 
fore r: as in doubt, limb; gnat, phlegm, sign ; rhyme, ah, 
poh ; Icnave, Icnell ; calf, talk, calm; kiln, column, hymn, 
p>neumatics, p)scdm, pshaiv, ptarmigan, Ptolemy ; lurap, 
wreck, wrong. 

3fr. S. — That will do, James. You appear to understand 
the theory very well. But theory v/ithout practice is like 
fiiich without works. Now let me see if you have a thorough 
practical knowledge of all the elementary sounds in our 
language. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

We will now repeat the elementary sounds in concert. 
To catch the sounds of all the vowels, we will first pro- 
nounce some words containing them, then drop the conso- 
nants and sound the vowels by themselves. 



16 EKGLISII GRAMMAR. 

All. — Fate, ate, a ; fat, at, a ; fare, are, a; far, ar, a; fall, 
all, a. Mete, ete, e ; mend, end, e. File, ile, i ; fill, ill, i. 
Sold, old, o ; sod, od, o ; move, ove, o. Mute, ute, u ; shut, 
ut, u ; put, pu, u. Soil, oil, oi. Pound, pou, on. 

A, a, a, a, a ; e, e ; i, i ; 0,0,0; u, u, u ; oi, ou. 

J/r. S. — On these few vowel sounds that we have just 
repeated, all the vocality of our language depends. They 
constitute the whole volume of our vocal sounds. You can- 
not speak a single word or syllable without using some of 
them. Articulation, or the jointing of our vocal sounds, 
depends upon the consonants. 

In the same manner we will now repeat the sounds of 
the consonants; the mutes first, and then the semi-vowels. 

All — Bob, b ; did, d ; gag, g ; kick, k ; pap, p ; toot, t 
Fife, f; ho, h; lull,!; maim, m; nine, n; sing, ng; roar, r; 
siss, s ; show, sh ; oath, th ; thy, th ; vow, v ; wo, w ; why, 
wh ; yaw, y ; breeze, z ; azure, zh. 

B, d, g, k, p, t ; f, h, 1, m, n, ng, r, s, sh, th, th, v, w, 
wh, y, z, zh. 

2fr. S. — Here are presented, in a small compass, all the 
elementary sounds in, our language. If you count them, 
you will see that we have thirty-eight elementary sounds 
and two diphthongal sounds. Seventeen of these are vocal, 
and twenty-three are (strictly speaking) articulations of 
vocal sounds, and cannot be perfectly uttered separately. 
We call them articulate sounds to distinguish them from 
vocal sounds. 

These forty sounds combined in various ways make all 
the words and sentences that we can utter. Therefore, you 
should understand them thoroughly. Repeat them fre- 
quently, till you can pronounce them all correctly and 
fluently in all their combinations. Distinct and accurate 
articulation is a prime excellence in elocution. Never 
mumble, lisp, or mince your words ; nor trail nor drawl 
them ; nor precipitate them, syllable over syllable, mixing 



OETHOGRAPHT. 17 

them together in a mass of confusion. Let all jour words 
be fitly spoken ; dropping from the. lips as beautiful coins 
just issued from the mint, completely finished, deeply and 
accurately impressed, and neatly struck by the proper organs. 
Give to every syllable and letter its appropriate sound. 
Never say, edecate, calkelate, prvide, presedunt, testemunt, 
pro^adunce, govermunt, etc., for educate, calculate, |)rovide, 
president, testament, providence, government. 

R. — Does every letter always have a distinct soiind ? 

Mr. 8. — There are some exceptions. In unaccented syl- 
lables the short sounds of the vowels are occasionally so 
obscure and feeble as to be hardly distinguishable; as in 
cedar, cider, candor, murmur, zephyr, vial, shovel, symbol, 
sylvan, evefi, satin, lion, cannon. 



LETTERS SUBSTITUTED FOR 
OTHER LETTERS. 

Many of the elementary sounds that certain letters gen- 
erally represent are sometimes represented by other letters, 
which are properly called their substitutes. 

Emma. — These substitutes are very numerous and 
troublesome, like busybodies, who are always minding other 
people's business. B, ea, ei, ey, ai, au, ay, and aye, are occa- 
sionally substituted for long a', as in tete, great, vein, obey, 
rain, gauge, day, aye : ai and aa for short a ; as in ^^Icfid, 
Isaac : e, ai, ei, and ua, for middle a, or a medial ; as in 
there, fair, heir, guaranty : e, ea, an, and iia, for flat «; as 
in sergeant, heart, haunt, guard: o, oa, on, co, au, atu, and 
aive, ioY hroad a; as in for, broad, fought, georgic, fraud, 
saiv, aioe : ea, ee, ei, eo, ey, ie, i, and y, for long e; as in seat, 
feet, receive, people, key, grief, machine, obloquy : ea, ei, eo, 
ie, u, ue, a, ai, and ay, for short e ; as in death, heifer, leop- 
ard, friend, bury, guest, many, against, says. 



18 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Phehe. — Y, ai, ei, eye, ui, uy, ie, and ye, are sometimes 
Bubstituted for long i; as mfly, aisle, height, eyelid, guide, 
huy, lie, rye : e, o, it, y, ee, ei, ie, and ui, for short i ; as iu 
2)retty, women, busy, nymioh, leen, forfeit, sieve, guilt : eo, 
can, ew, au, oa, oe, oo, on, oio, and oive, for long o; as in 
yeoman, beau, seio, hautboy, load, foe, door, court, low, otve : 
a, au, ou, and ow, for short o; as in what, laudanum, lough, 
Icnoioledge : oe, oo, on, tvo, and oeu, for slender o; as in shac, 
food, group, two, manoeuver : %ie, eu, etv, can, ieu, and ica\ 
for long u; as in cue, feud, fcio, beauty, adieu, vieiu : e, i, o, 
oe, 00, eo, on, and eou, for short tc ; as in her, bird, son, does, 
flood, dungeon, trouble, gorgeous: and o, oo, and ou, for ob- 
tuse u ; as in luolffoot, would. 

Gilbert. — C is frequently substituted for 5 ; as iu cent: 
d and g, for / ; as in soldier, giant : gh and pit, for/; as in 
laugh, 2Jhrase : c, q, ch, and gh, for h ; as in can, queen, cho- 
rus, lough : ch, ce, ci, si, and ti, for sh ; as in chevalier, 
ocean, spacious, mansion, nation : f and^;/^, for v ; as in of, 
Stephen : c, s, and x, for z ; as in sacrifice, rose, Xenophon : 
and s and z, for zh ; as in pleasure, azure. 



IMPORTANCE OF A PERFECT 
ALPHABET. 

B. — "Why don't each letter always have the same sound ? 

J. — Because we have more elementary sounds than let- 
ters : our alphabet is imperfect. 

R. — Then why are half a dozen different letters used to 
represent the same sound ? 

J. — Because it has been customary from time immem- 
orable: custom is the lav\^ of language. 

i?.— Must we follow custom when it is at variance with 
common sense, analogy, and reason ? 

J. — Certainly ; for custom is the standard of propriety. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

Mr. S. — It has been aptly said that custom is the law of 
one sort of fools ; and fashion, of another. Wise men learn 
from both, but are not ruled by either. Like St. Paul, they 
prove all things, and hold fast that which is good. By bHnd 
adherence to established custom or capricious fashion, how 
can language ever be improved ? 

M. — Why can't we have a perfect system of orthog- 
raphy ? 

]\fr. S. — Because our spelling is controlled by custom 
rather tlian by reason and analogy. Our words are there- 
fore very heterogeneous in orthography. Perfection in the 
arts and sciences consists in uniformity and regularity. In 
mathematics, every term, figure, sign, and symbol has a 
uniform meaning; and all the elementary principles are 
combined with beautiful regularity. Therefore, of all the 
arts and sciences, mathematics approaches the nearest to 
perfection. If we had a perfect alphabet, and every letter 
always represented the same sound, we might proceed with 
mathematical accuracy in the spelling and pronunciation of 
our words. But silent letters, substitutes, and letters having 
different sounds, make it extremely difficult, if not impossi- 
ble, for us to establish any regular system of spelling and 
pronunciation. If we used our figures as we do our letters ; 
representing several different numbers with the same figure, 
and then making several different figures represent the same 
number, and occasionally throwing in three or four different 
figures in a group, like silent letters, representing nothing, 
who could ever learn arithmetic ? 

Francis. — How can we ever learn to spell and pronounce 
all the words in our language ? 

Mr. S. — By patiently studying the spelling-book and 
dictionary year after year. It now requires as many years 
to learn our spelling and pronunciation as it would require 
months, if v>re had a perfect alphabet of all our elementary 
sounds, and used it scientifically, as we do our figures. 



20 EliraLIBH QEAMMAIt. 

Then no silent letters would encumber language. But the 
printed page would be the perfect mirror of the human 
voice, presenting to the eye the utterance of the tongue, and 
every letter be the symbol of a certain sound. But, as the 
people are not yet prepared for such an innovation, we 
must use our alphabet, imperfect as it is, and do the best we 
can in spelling and pronouncing words, till they are ready 
to adopt a better one. 



SYLLABLES AND ^VORDS. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or complex, uttered 
at a single impulse of the voice ; as, «, am, arms, charms. 

A word is a syllable, or a customary combination of syl- 
lables, used as the sign of an idea. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
trisyllable ; and a word of more than three syllables, a poly- 
syllable. 

A simple word is one that is not composed of two or 
more words ; as, pen, Icnife, looking, glass. 

A compound word is two or more simple words united ; 
QjS, 2)e'}ihnife, looJcing -glass. 

Spelling is the proper combination of letters into words. 

Syllabication is the proper division of words into sylla- 
bles. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

There is so little uniformity in our orthography, that it 
is very difficult to make our rules for spelhng unexception- 
able. Some of them are liable to so many exceptions, that 
they puzzle learners more than they assist them. I will not, 
therefore, trouble you with many rules ; but I will try to 



OKTHOGRAPHY. 21 

make the few that I present as useful and as free from ex- 
ceptions as I can. 

Rule 1. — Fi:t^AL Letter Doubled. 

When a monosyllable, or a word accented on the last 
syllable, ends with a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, its final consonant is doubled before a suflQx that be- 
gins with a Yowel ; as, sin, sinner, sinning ; sad, sadden, 
sadder, saddest ; excel, excelled, excelling, excellent. ' 

Rule 2. — Fiital Letter not Doubled. 

A final consonant is not doubled when it is not preceded 
by a single vowel, or when the last syllable is unaccented, or 
the suflQx begins with a consonant ; as, plain, plainer, plai^i- 
est; farm, farmer, farming ; exceed, exceeded, exceeding; 
travel, traveler, traveling ; commit, commitment. 

Rule 3. — Fikal E Omitted. 

Silent e at the end of a word is omitted before a suffix 
that begins with a vowel, when it is not needed to preserve 
the soft sound of c ox g ', as, tame, tamed, taming, tamable ; 
injure, injured, injuring, injurious, injury ; convince, con- 
vinced, convincing ; engage, engaged, engaging. 

Rule 4. — Final E Retained. 

Silent e at the end of a word is generally retained before 
a suffix that begins with a consonant, and wlien it is needed 
before a vowel to preserve the soft sound of c or g ; as, 
tame, tamely, tameness ; engage, engagement ; safe, safeguard, 
safely, safeness, safety ; peace, peaceful, peaceable ; courage, 
courageous ; singe, singeing. 

Rule 5. — Final Y Changed into I. 

Final y following a consonant is changed into i before a 
suffix that does not begin with i ; as, merry, merrier, mer- 



22 E N G L I S H G li A M if A E . 

7'iest, merrily, merriment; liiry, hurled, burier, burial; 
busy, busier, busiest, busily, business. 

Rule G. — Fiis^al Y Unchanged. 

Final y preceded by a vowel or followed by a suffix that 
begins Avitli i, sliould remained unchanged ; and i before 
final e should be changed into y when e is omitted before ing, 
that i may not be doubled ; as, gay, gayer, gayest ; convey, 
conveyance, conveyed, conveying ; enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyed, 
enjoying, enjoyment ; defy, defying ; sully, sullying ; dandy, 
dandyish, dandyism. 



EXERCISE IN SPELLING. 

Mr. 8. — As I write some words on the blackboard, take 
particular notice, and correct me, if I violate any of these 
rules. Write every misspelled word correctly on your slates, 
and tell what rule I violate. 

Begar, begary, beged, beging. 

J. — You have violated Rule 1. These words are formed 
by adding suffixes that begin with vowels to beg, which ends 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. There- 
fore g, the final letter, should be doubled before the suffixes, 
ar, ary, ed, and ing ; thus, beggar, beggary, begged, begging. 

Forbiden, expeled, beginer, begining. 

R. — These words are formed by adding suffixes that be- 
gin with vowels to forbid, exjjel, and begin, each of which 
ends Avith a single consonant preceded by a single vow^el, 
and is accented on the last syllable. Therefore, the final 
consonants, d, I, and n, should be doubled before the suffixes, 
en, ed, er, and ing ; thus, forbidden, expelled, beginner, and 
beginning, according to Rule 1. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 33 

Dealler, dealling, complain nable, complainnant, complain- 
ner, complainniiig, defenddant, defendded, defendder, 
defendding. 

E. — These words are formed by adding suffixes to deal, 
co)npIainy iind defend, v/hose final consonants are not pre- 
ceded by single vowels. Therefore the final consonants, 
/, n, and d, should remain single before the suffixes, er, mg, 
able, ant, and ed ; thus, dealer, dealing, complainahle, com- 
plainant, complainer, complaining, defendant, defended, de- 
fender, defending, according to Eule 2. 

Flatterrer, flatterred, flatterring, flatterry, visitted, visitting, 
visittor, yisittant, visittation. 

H. — These words are formed by adding suffixes to flattar 
and visit, whose last syllable is unaccented. ' Therefore, the 
final consonants, r and t, should remain single before the 
suffixes, er, ed, ing, or, ant, ation, and y, ihwQ, flatterer, flat- 
tered, flattering, flattery ; visited, visiting, visitor, visita7it, 
visitation, according to Eule 2. 

Blameable, exciteing, saleable, sliadeing, shadey. 

if.^These words are formed by adding suffixes that be- 
gin with vowels to Uame, excite, sale, and shade. Therefore, 
final e should be omitted before the suffixes, able, ing, and ?/; 
thus, llamaUe, exciting, salable, shading, and shady, accord- 
ing to Eule 3. 

Forceible, conviuceing, rageing, wageing, surgey. 

P. — These words are formed by adding suffixes that be- 
gin with vowels to force, convince, rage, wage, and surge ; 
and final e is not needed to preserve tlie soft sound of c or g. 
It should, therefore, be omitted before the suffixes, ible, ing, 
and y ; ^-i\x^, forcible, convincing, raging, waging, surgy, ac- 
cording to Eule 3, 



24 ENGLISH QKAMMAR. 

Reyengful, shamfiil, blamless, tamlj, baslj, confinment, 
excitment, j udgsh ip. 

J. — These words are formed by adding suffixes that be- 
gin with consonants to revenge, shame, blame, tame, base, 
confine, excite, and jtidge. E should, therefore, be retained ; 
thus, revengeful, shameful, blameless, tamely, basely, confine- 
ment, excitement, and judgeship, according to Eule 4. 

Peacable, servicable, cliangable, outragous. 

G. — These words are formed by adding suffixes to peace, 
service, change, and outrage, in which final e is needed to pre- 
serve the soft sound of c and g before able and ous. It should, 
therefore, be retained before these suffixes ; thus, peaceable, 
serviceable, changeable, outrageous, according to Eule 4. 

Happyness, holyness, yaryable, varyance, yaryant, yaryation, 
yaryety, yaryform, yaryfy, yaryous. 
F. — These words are formed by adding suffixes that do 
not begin with i to happy, holy, and vary, in each of which 
final y follows a consonant. It should, therefore, be changed 
into I before the suffixes, ness, able, ance, ant, ation, ety,form, 
fy, and ous; thus, happiness, holiness, variable, variance, 
variant, variation, variety, variform, varify, and various, ac- 
cording to Rule 5. 

Gaiety, gaily, gainess, joiance, joiful, joiless, joious. 
Delia —These words are formed by adding suffixes to 
gay and joy, in each of which final y is preceded by a yowel. 
It should, therefore, remain unchanged before the suffixes, 
ety, ly, ness, ance, ful, less, and ous ; thus, gaijefy, gayly, 
gayness, joy ance, joyful, joyless, joyous, according to Rule 6. 

Appliing, studiing, deniing, copiist, dandiize. 

^.— These words are formed by adding suffixes that 
begin with i to apply, study, deny, copy, and dandy. There- 
fore, final y should remain unchanged before the suffixes, 



ORTKOGEAPHY. 25 

ing, ist, and ize, that i may not be doubled ; thus, applying^ 
studying, denyingy copyist, dandyize, according to Rule 6. 

Diing, liiing, viing, untiing. 

P. — These words are formed by addiug ing to die, liie, 
vie, and untie, and omitting final e. Therefore, i should be 
changed into y, that it may not be doubled; thus, dying, 
liying, vying, untying, according to Rule 6. 

J. — This rule has some exceptions ; as, day, daily ; lay, 
laid ; pay, paid; say, said. Does that prove the rule ? 

Mr. S. — Exceptions prove the rule to be imperfect: a 
perfect rule has no exceptions. This may be said of defini- 
tions, too. 

R. — There are some exceptions to Rule 4; as, awe, awful; 
due, duly ; true, truly; tuoe, woful; abridge, abridgment; 
judge, judgment. 

Mr. S. — Perfect rules cannot agree with our irregular 
and inconsistent spelling. 

/. — In spelling many words our dictionaries differ. 
" Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? " 

Mr. S. — Good judgment, common sense, consistent rules, 
analogy, and reason. 

H. — What is the use of spending so much time in study- 
ing these little insignificant letters ? 

Mr. S. — " These little things are great to little man." 

All our written languages consist of letters, representing 
all the sounds we use in speaking. None of us can read or 
write a single sentence, word, or syllable, without them. 
Letters are the golden keys that open the portals of know- 
ledge, and unlock the temple of truth. With them w^e can 
transmit to every age and nation all the arts and sciences, 
and tell what has been said or done at different times and 
places : we can record our knowledge and preserve it for 
the benefit of all mankind; and make of fragile paper 
" monuments more durable than brass." 
2 



26 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Withont the use of letters, language is an unsubstantial 
structure of but short continuance, and words are dying 
echoes soon forgotten. Written language lives in history 
when it is no longer spoken, and perpetuates the memory 
of fallen greatness and departed glory. Many barbarous 
nations, with unwritten languages, have arisen, flourished, 
and declined. They had no letters to record their knowl- 
edge, and their fair renown is now forgotten, notwithstand- 
ing all the glorious deeds and splendid talents of their 
heroes, sages, orators, and minstrels. Their heroic lays are 
heard no more ; their language is no longer spoken : they 
and all their works have passed away, and vanished like " a 
vision of the night." But the letters given to the Greeks 
by Cadmus have preserved their language in its native 
beauty, and immortalized their heroes, painters, poets, ora- 
tors, philosophers, and statesmen; shedding a bright halo 
of glory over their achievements. 

Letters are the gTeat conservatives of language ; crystal- 
lizing and embalming all the sounds the human voice pro- 
duces, and preserving them forever. Through them the 
prophets, priests, and patriarchs, who lived three thousand 
years ago, though dead, yet speak. To show the great im- 
portance of our letters, let me use the language of the poet, 
with a slight alteration : 

Vain was the chief's, the sage's pride! 
They had no letters, and they died. 
In vain they schemed, in vain they bled I 
They had no letters, and are dead. 

Where are the the cities Homer sung? 
Or Nineveh and Babel, 
Themes of a prophet's glowing tongue. 
Recorded in the Bible ? 

Embalmed in everlasting verse. 
Their grandeur still survives ; 
Which future ages shall rehearse : 
Man dies, but language livea 



ETYMOLOGY. '27 



ETYMOLOGY 



CONVERSATION II. 

A GENERAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE AND THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Mr, S. — Orthography has been sufficiently discussed. 
Let us proceed to etymology. We will at first take a bird's- 
eye view of all the parts of speech. 

The parts of speech are the different sorts of words that 
we use in speaking. 

J. — Why don't you call them the parts of language ? 
Have not speech and language the same meaning ? 

Mr. 8. — Not exactly : language is more comprehensive 
in its meaning. We can properly say, all speech is language, 
but all language is not speech ; just as we say, all horses are 
animals, but all animals are not horses. Speech is spoken 
language. It consists of vocal and articulate sounds put 
together into words, which are used to communicate our 
ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Language is the communica- 
tion of ideas, thoughts, or feelings, by means of words or 
any other signs. It includes all means of communication. 
None but those who are able to speak can, with strict pro- 
priety, be said to have the faculty of speech. The deaf and 
dumb cannot speak ; and yet they have a language, though 
they are speechless. They can talk with their fingers, and 
by means of gestures. 

There is a language more expressive than speech, which 
nature teaches all mankind and even the brute creation. It 
consists of such instinctive cries, tones, looks, and actions, 



28 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

as are understood by all sentient creatures of the same 
species, and, in some degree, by those of different species. 
Dogs and horses understand from our tones of voice, looks, 
and actions, whether we are pleased or angry ; and, in like 
manner, they communicate their feelings to us. Our benev- 
olent Creator has endowed every kind of animals with a 
natural language to express their feelings. But the faculty 
of speech was bestowed on man alone for great and excel- 
lent uses. 

Even inanimate things have a natural language, written 
in significant expressive characters, by the Author of their 
being, which would give us sweet instruction, if we could 
but understand it. My dear young friends, the Book of 
]N"ature is everywhere open before you. Kead it, and be 
wise. To those who learn to read aright its living, glowing, 
thought-inspiring pages, there are beautiful poems in the 
blooming landscape, in the morning and the evening sky, 
the murmuring brooks, the whispering breezes, and the 
waving grain ; there are sermons in flowers, plants, and 
trees ; and eloquent discourses about Creation in the craggy 
mountains and the granite rocks. "The heavens declare 
the glory of God. The earth is full of his praise.^' 

*' The spacious firmament on high. 
With all the blue ethereal sky, 
And spangled heavens, a shining frame. 
Their great Original proclaim : 
The unwearied sun, from day to day. 
Does his Creator's power display. 
And publishes to every land 
The work of an Almighty hand. 

Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wondrous tale ; 
And, nightly, to the listening earth, 
Kepeats the story of her birth : 
While all the stars that round her burn. 
And all the planets in their turn, 



ETYMOLOGY. .^9 

Confirm the tidings as they roll, 

And spread the truth from pole to pole. 

What though in solemn silence, all 

Move round this dark terrestrial ball ! 

What though no real voice nor sound 

Amid their radiant orbs be found ' 

In reason's ear they all rejoice. 

And utter forth a glorious voice ; 

Forever singing as they shine, 

* The hand that made us is divine. ' " ' 



EXCLAMATIONS, 

Nancy. — Have little children a language before they 
begin to talk ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly : they communicate their feeling? by 
natural signs ; by their looks and gestures, by inarticulate 
cries and simple vocal sounds, such as I and eli ! before 
they have any clear, distinct ideas or thoughts to communi- 
cate. Such cries and vocal sounds we call exclamations. 

An exclamation is a word abruptly uttered to express a 
strong or sudden impulse of feeling. 

Exclamations are the germs of speech, the first crude 
words we utter in our childhood, and the last that tremble 
on the lips of weak decaying age ; expressing joy and sor- 
row, pleasure, pain, and other feelings, passions, or emotions. 
They are a sort of natural language which we have in 
common with the brute creation. Even inarticulate cries, 
groans, shrieks, screams, shouts, and yells, and vocal imita- 
tions of the sounds made by animals and inanimate things, 
are exclamations. 

As I repeat a few sentences pick out the exclamations. 

Oh ! leave this barren spot to me I 

William.— Oh. ! 

It is, alas ! the truth we tell. 



30 ENGLISHGRAMMAR. 

Tliomas. — Alas ! 

Ah ! why all abandoned to darkness and wo ? 

i?.— Ah ! 

Lo ! a form divinely bright 
Descends, and bursts upon my sight ! 

M.—Lo ! 

Tweet, tweet, tweet ! the birds all cried. 

E. — Tweet, tweet, tweet ! 

Coo, coo ! cried the dove. Twang ! went the bow-string ; 
and whizz ! whiz-z-z ! went the arrow. 

P. — Coo, coo ! Twang ! Whiz ! whiz-z-z ! 

J. — Are tweet, coo, twang, and whiz, exclamations ? 

Mr. S. — Yes : they are vocal imitations of the sounds 
made by animals and inanimate things ; and, like other 
exclamations, they are uttered abruptly with some degree 
of feeling. Select the exclamations in these examples at 
your leisure. 

O, pshaw ! I don't believe it. 

Poh, poll ! that's one of our Tim's large stories. 

Fie, fie ! unknit that threatening unkind brow. 

Alack, alack ! Edward, I like not this unnatural dealing. 

Hurrah for young America ! Aha ! I've found you. 

We're close on the breakers — the breakers ! halloo ! 

Tush, man ! abodements must not now affright us. 

Ha, ha, ha, ha, ha ! Oh ! I shall die a laughing ! 

How ! have they denied him ? Indeed ! is it true ? 

Amazing ! what do I see ? Is it Pithius just arrived ? 

Hail, Caesar ! Read this schedule. What ! is the fellow mad ? 

Huzza for lord Roughhead ! Zounds I what a peer ! 

Excellent ! Your lordship's a goodly villain. 

False wizzard, avaunt ! I have marshaled my clan. 

Ha ! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn ? 

Hush ! hark ! did you not hear it ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

See ! from the brake the whirrmg pheasant springe. 

Chickadee-dee I Poor little bird, how cold he must be 1 

Strutting chanticleer cries, cock-a-doodle-doo ] 

I would rather be a kitten and cry, mew ! 

Look ! do you see those cats in the buttery ? Scat ! 

A good dog barks before he bites : Bow, wow, wow ! 

Farewell, my friends ; farewell, my foes. 

Adieu, adieu I my native shore * 

Fades o'er the waters blue. 

Cuckoo, cuckoo, O word of fear ! 
Unpleasing to the married ear. 

To who, to who ! to who, who, who 1 
Exclaims the owl concealed from view. 

P. — Are there any exclamations spoken that are neyer 
printed ? 

Mr. S. — See those children playing in the park, and 
learn from observation : hear them shout and scream to give 
expression to their feelings. 

P. — I never saw in any book such exclamations as they 
use. Could anybody write such words, or print them? 
Who could ever spell them ? 

^.— We might as well attempt to write or print the 
music of the birds. 

J".— Why do you begin with exclamations? They are 
the last part of speech in all the grammars I have ever 
seen. 

Mr. 8. — Because this is the natural order : exclamations 
are the first words used in every language. I observe the 
course markod out by nature, and pursue the inductive 
method ; rising from the observation of particular facts and 
things to general truths. This is the course pursued by 
children, from their early infancy till they are sent to 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

school; where nature's method is reversed, especially in 
grammar. Beginning with mere nothing, it is really aston- 
ishing how much they learn from nature's teachings in 
three or four years. It is generally conceded that the hu- 
man understanding comes into this breathing world a per- 
fect blank, as pure and spotless as a piece of clean white 
paper, destitute of all impressions, haying no ideas or 
thoughts ; but not devoid of feeling. It is keenly sensitive 
before the dawning of intelligence. 

Sensation, which is manifested by instinctive cries and 
exclamations, must precede perception. We perceive exter- 
nal objects, and receive ideas through the senses. We must 
see, hear, feel, taste, or smell, before we can begin to think, 
or have ideas, the materials for thinking. Here begins all 
human knowledge. 

how beautiful is nature's teaching! hers is genuine 
object teaching. See how quick she fills each infant mind 
with bright ideas, living pictures of surrounding objects, 
when but just arrived, a stranger in this world of wonders, 
with an accuracy, beauty, and dispatch, that human skiU 
can never equal. 

" Take Nature's path, and mad Opinion's leave : 
All states can reach it, and all heads conceive." 

As little children's minds expand and brighten, strength- 
en, and advance from such instinctive feelings and sensa- 
tions as Ave have in common with irrational animals, to clear 
perceptions of surrounding objects, and begin to have dis- 
tinct ideas and thoughts, they then require significant 
words altogether different from exclamations, to communi- 
cate them. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 



NOUNS. 

D. — How do children first begin to communicate their 
ideas and thoughts? 

Mr. 8. — By pointing out the things they want, and 
making earnest gestures. So do foreigners before they know 
our language. 

E. — What if the things they want are out of sight, and 
can't be pointed out ? 

J. — If they had pictures of them, they could tell us what 
they want by showing us its picture. 

Mr. \S. — They have bright mental pictures of familiar 
objects, called ideas, treasured in their memories, and a 
curious contrivance to present them. To communicate 
their ideas of persons and things, they learn to speak their 
names, and, (wonderful to tell!) present them through the 
sense of hearing to our mental sight, as if they held their 
pictures right before our eyes. By saying rose or pink, I 
can communicate to you my idea of a rose or pink, as clearly 
and distinctly as I can by showing you its picture ; for the 
name calls up the same idea in your mind that it represents 
in mine. The names of what we see or think of, used as 
signs of our ideas, we call nouns. 

A noun is the name of something that we can see or 
think of. 

G. — Is the name of any thing that we can see or think of 



a noun 



Mr. /SI— Of course it is. Tell us the names of what you 
see in this room. 

G. — Boys, girls, books, desks, pens, paper, slates. 

Mr. S. — "What did you see on your way to school ? 

F. — Men, dogs, cats, horses, oxen, cows, sheep, meadows, 
pastures, gardens, houses, fences. 

3Ir. S. — All these names are nouns, and hundreds more 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that might be mentioned.* Tell us the names of a few 
things that you can think of, but cannot see. 

E. — Let me consider. What can I think of that can't be 
seen. Truth, love, mercy, justice, education, memory, faith, 
hope, charity, politeness, bravery, civility, remember, brave- 
ly, educate, politely. 

T. — Why, Emma ! can you think of such a thing as a 
remember, a bravely, an educate, or a politely ? Where can 
it be found ? Who has it ? Some of us have a little mem- 
ory, bravery, education, and politeness. But who has any 
remember, bravely, educate, or politely ? 

Mr. S, — A noun will generally make sense with my be- 
fore it ; as. My memory, my bravery, my education, my po- 
liteness. 

E.— My remember, my bravely, my educate, my politely. 
! I see ! Remember, bravely, educate, and j)olitely are not 
nouns. 

Mr. S. — Are mind, ideas, tJiouglds, tliinh, care, careless, 
he, she, they, beauty, and beautifully, nouns ? 

P. — My mind, my ideas, my thoughts, my think, my 
care, my careless, my he, my she, my they, my beauty, my 
beautifully. Mind, ideas, thoughts, care, and beauty, are 
nouns; but think, careless, he, she, they, and beautifully, 
are not nouns. 

Mr. S. — Select the nouns in what I say or read. 

James holds his pen between his thumb and finger. 

R. — James, pen, thumb, finger. 

Henry's watch and knife are on the desk. 

M. — Henry's, watch, knife, desk. 

Emma has some pinks and roses in her hand. 

T. — Emma, pinks, roses, hand. 

* Teachers may extend this exercise to any length desirable. They may let 
their pupils tell the names of all that they have seen at home, or in the neighbor- 
hood, on the farms, and in the bams and houses, stores and shops, along the 
streets, and in the gardens, orchards, fields, and woods ; and make them cultivate a 
habit of observing things, as well as words. 



I ETYMOLOGY. 35 

I Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 

I J. — Land, cypress, myrtle. 

I Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ? 

H. — Emblems, deeds, clime. 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 

E. — Eage, vulture, love, turtle. 

Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime ! 

P. — Sorrow, crime. 

Sloth, like rust, consumes faster than labor wears.* 

Exercise and temperance are the best preservatives of 
health. 

Hypocrisy is the price that vice pays to virtue. 

Intemperance destroys more lives than war, pestilence, 
and famine. 

See truth, love, and mercy, in triumpli descending ; 

And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom ! 
On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending. 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb * 



PRONOUNS. 

Mr. S. — Some children, when they have occasion to 
mention the same persons or things frequently, repeat their 
names in this manner: "John started for school with 
John's books in John's hand ; but John stopped to play 
with John's dog, and lost John's books." Is this good 



R. — No, sir : the frequent repetition of the same noun 
makes it very disagreeable indeed. It should be, "John 
started for school with his books in his hand ; but he 
stopped to play with his dog, and lost them." 

Mr. S. — You have made a great improvement in this 

* When you have selected all the nouns In these examples, select them in your 
readine lessons. 



36 ENGLISH GEAM MAR. 

sentence by using he and Ms for John, and them for hoolcs. 
What do we call such little words as he^ his, and them f 

E. — We call them pronouns, because they stand for nouns, 
and fully represent them by performiug all their offices. 

A pronoun is a word that represents a noun. 

Mr. S. — Select the pronouns in each sentence that I 
speak or read, and tell me what they stand for. 

Ruth started for school with her books in her hand ; but 
she stopped to play with her dog, and lost them. 

D. — She and her stand for Ruth ; and them, for hoohs. 

Boys, where are the books that I gave you ? 

H, — That stands for hoohs ; I, for Mr. Sanith ; and you, 
for hoys. 

Girls, what books are these ? Are they yours or mine ? 

J. — These and they stand for hoolcs ; yours, for girls and 
boohs J and mine, for Mr. Smith and hoohs : yours is equiv- 
alent in sense to your hoohs j and mi7ie, to my hoohs. 

Then said Martha unto Jesus, Lord, if thou hadst been 
here, my brother had not died. 

F. — Thou stands for Lord; and 7ny, for Martha. 

Jesus saith unto her. Thy brother shall rise again. 

G. — Her and thy stand for Martha. 

Martha saith unto him, I know that he shall rise again 
in the resurrection at the last day. 

F. — Him stands for Jesus j I, for Martha ; and he, for 
hrother. 

Jesus said unto her, I am the resurrection and the life : 
he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he 
live ; and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never 
die. Believest thou this ? 

J. — Her and thou stand for Martha ; I and me, for Jesus ; 
lie, that, and whosoever, for any man indefinitely; and this, 
for " I am the resurrection and the life : he that believeth in 
me, though he were dead, yet shall he live ; and whosoever 
liveth and believeth in me shall never die." 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

Joseph's brethrGii came, and bowed down themselves be- 
fore him with their faces to the earth. 

R. — Themselves and their stand for hrethren ; and him, 
for Joseph, 

Joseph remembered the dreams which he dreamed of 
them, and said unto them, Ye are spies. 

N. — Wliich stands for dreams ; he, for Joseph ; and them 
and ye,, for hrethren. , 

We are true men, thy servants are no spies. 
K — We stands for hrethren ; and thy, for Joseph, 
Then Abner looked behind him and said. Art thou 
Asahel ? And he answered, I am. 

W, — Him stands for Abner ; and thou, he, and /, for 
A sahel. 

The men that held Jesus mocked him and smote him. 
M, — TJiat stands for men ; and him, for Jesus, 
And when they had blindfolded him, they struck him 
on the face, and asked him, saying. Prophecy who is it that 
smote thee ? 

T, — They stands for men; and him and thee, for Jesus, 
P. — What do luho, it, and that, stand for ? 
Mr, S, — Who and it have no definite antecedents: they 
represent any one indefinitely. It is the antecedent of that. 
O, — What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 
Mr, 8. — The antecedent of a pronoun is what it stands for. 
As soon as it was day, the elders of the people and the 
chief priests and the scribes came together, and led him 
into their council, saying, Art thou the Christ? tell us. 
And he said unto them. If I tell you, ye will not believe. 

H. — Him, thou, he, and/, stand for Je5?/s ; and their, us, 
them, you, and ye, for elders, priests, and scribes. 
F. — Why do you omit it f is it not a pronoun ? 
H — What does it stand for ? why is it a pronoun ? 
Mr. S. — It has no definite antecedent. But it is used as 
the subject of teas, and therefore represents a noun by per- 



38 EJ^^QLISH GRAMMAR. 

forming its office, though it does not stand for any particular 
one. In this sense, pronouns may be said to represent 
nouns when they do not stand directly for them. Several of 
our pronouns, like algebraic letters representing unknown 
quantities, occasionally stand for something indefinitely, 
and consequently, have no definite antecedents. 

TJiis and that, as well as it, sometimes stand for phrases, 
clauses, paragraphs, and even whole discourses, or divisions 
of them. These pronouns in such cases come within our 
definition : though they do not stand for nouns, they repre- 
sent them by performing their offices as subjects or objects 
in the sentences to which they belong; as, "/^ is said that a 
certain eminent divine who preached before one of the kings 
of England, as he closed what he considered an incontro- 
vertible argument, striking the pulpit violently with his 
fist, triumphantly exclaimed, *Who dare deny that?' To 
this the king replied, * Nobody within the reach of your 
great fist.' '^ 

What are the antecedents of it, that, and this 9 

P. — Lee me see. " It is said." What is said ? Why, all 
that you have just related. So it stands for this whole 
anecdote. " Who dare deny that f " Deny what ? The whole 
sermon, I suppose, or, at least, the argumentative part of it. 
''To this the king replied." To what? He replied to 
" Who dare deny that ? " 

Mr. /S'.— Eead the fourth chapter of St. John, select the 
pronouns, and tell what they stand for. 

E. — This is a good exercise, to make us understand what 
we read, and give us a practical knowledge of the use of 
pronouns. In selecting all the pronouns in this chapter, 
and telling what they stand for, Fve learned more about 
them than in all the grammars I have ever studied. I never 
understood this chapter half so well before. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 



ADJECTIVES. 

Mr. 8. — I'm glad you like my mode of teaching. If you 
study grammar in the Book of Nature, it will always be 
agreeable. Describe what you observed this morning on 
your way to school ; and this will naturally lead you to an- 
other part of speech. 

D. — The clear, blue sky; rich, fertile valleys; rough, 
rocky, barren mountains; cool, dehghtful, shady groves. 

Mr. 8. — Select the nouns, and tell what words are added 
to them. 

E. — 8ky, valleys, mountains, and groves are nouns. 
The, clear, and blue are added to sky ; rich and fertile, to 
valleys ; rough, rocky, and barren, to mountains ; and cool, 
delightful, and shady, to groves. What do you call such 
words ? 

3Ir. 8. — "We call them adjectives, because they are added 
to nouns. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun. 

Adjectives are generally added to nouns and pronouns to 
express the qualities of persons and things, and thus describe 
them. They constitute the greater part of our descriptive 
words ; and these are very numerous. There are, however, 
some such adjectives as a, an, any, every, several, some, other, 
7nany, one, tivo, three, four, the, this, that, yon, and yonder, 
which point out or specify, single out, or parcel out persons 
or things, without describing them; thus limiting the 
meaning of our nouns, but not expressing quality; as, 
a man, one man, any man, every man, some men, 
several men, many men, a dozen men, a thousand men, 
a hundred thousand men. " Yon flowery arbors, yonder 
alleys green." 

An adjective is generally placed before the noun and 
after the pronoun to which it belongs. You can know an 



40 EN"GLISHGRAMMAR. 

adjective by its dependence on a noun or pronoun. It ex- 
presses a concrete idea that cannot stand alone, and must be 
added to a substantive idea as a basis or support. As qual- 
ities belong to persons and things, and have no separate ex- 
istence, so adjectives belong to nouns and pronouns, and 
cannot make good sense without them. 

E. — Let us have an exercise in using adjectives. 

Mr. 8. — Very well. Take toys or any other noun, and 
see how many adjectives you can use before it. 

E. — Good boys, bad boys, rich boys, poor boys, English 
boys, Irish boys, German boys, rude boys, civil boys. 

P. — Kind, obliging, friendly, generous, good-natured 
boys. 

H. — Studious, intelligent, polite, well-educated boys. 

R, — Tall, slender, blue-eyed, light-complexioned boys. 

D. — Obedient, attentive, quiet, orderly, kind-hearted boys. 

J. — Eough, uncivil, quarrelsome, profane, ill-natured boys. 

W. — Noisy, saucy, vulgar, ignorant, disorderly boys. 

T. — Lazy, idle, shiftless, stupid, good-for-nothing boys. 

Mr. 8. — That will do to show the nature of our ad- 
jectives. We might use fifty more with hoys, perhaps a 
hundred, and describe all sorts of boys imaginable.* As I 
read a little poetry, select the adjectives in every line. 

On rude December's cold, inclement air, 
M. — Eude, cold, inclement. 

Rings out the cheering voice of fervent prayer. 
P. — The, cheering, fervent. 

Amid the dreary wastes of ice and snow,f 
Where cheerless Winter's howling tempests blow, 



* Drill your pupils thoroughly in such exercises till they understand the prope; 
use of adjectives. At first, let them pursue the method here presented ; taking one 
noun at a time, and using all the adjectives that make good Sense hefore It. 

+ Eead this, and let your grammar class select the adjectives in every line, ac- 
cording to the method here presented as an oral exercise. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

Sweet gardens bloom to faith's prophetic eyes. 
Rich fields of waving grain and flowery meads arise. 
Delightful villages and cities smile, 
Magnificent with many a splendid pile. 
Such charming landscapes as old England never knew 
Spring up before enraptured fancy's eager view, 
And while the weary wintry hours away. 
With hope's sweet promise of a brighter day. 

Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race be run, , 

Along Morea's hills, the setting sun ; 

Not as in northern climes obscurely bright. 

Bat one unclouded blaze of living light ! 

O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws. 

Gilds the green wave, that trembles as it glows. 

At summer eve, when Heaven's aerial bow 
'Spans with bright arch the glittering hills below. 
Why to yon mountain turns the musing eye. 
Whose sun-bright summit mingles with the sky ? 
Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
More sweet than all the landscape smiling near ? 
'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 
The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed. 
The cock's shil] clarion, or the echoing horn. 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 
This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, 
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ? 
On some fond breast the parting soul relies. 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 

Mr, /S'.— Prom this you see that adjectives perform the 
office of word-painting. We can paint more beautifully 
with them than with the pencil. We can take a wider 
range ; portraying all the Avorks of nature and of art, and 
all the airy shapes of fancy ; painting to the eye, the ear. 



42 E N G L I S H G R A M M A R . 

the feelings, and the taste. The painter's art addresses only 
our sight : the poet's, all our senses and our mental facul- 
ties. He can describe all kinds of feelings, odors, sounds, 
and flavors ; which no painter's pencil can portray. 

Strike out the adjectives, and what becomes of our 
descriptive poetry ? Without them language would resem- 
ble the rude outlines of unfinished pictures, which the soft 
touches of the painter's magic pencil clothe with life and 
beauty, like adjectives employed by skillful poets. What a 
fine effect they have in these examples : " Along with them 
they brought one Pinch ; a hungry, lean-faced villain ; a 
needy, hollow-eyed, sharp-looking wretch; a living dead 
man!" 

" That form with eye so dark and cheek so fair. 
With auburn waves of gemmed and braided hair.'* 

Some writers use too many adjectives, and make their 
style too florid. What colors are to painting adjectives are 
to language. They require a delicate taste, observant eye, 
and skillful hand. They cannot be used with good effect 
by a mere dauber. Let us have a trial of your skill in using 
adjectives. Write on your slates the names of what you 
think of. Now write appropriate adjectives before or after 
them. Eead what you have written. 

M. — Yonder full-blown, beautiful, white roses. 

E. — Several large, ripe, mellow, juicy, sweet apples. 

P. — These small blue plums, some excellent peaches. 

^.— Cold, damp, chilly, cloudy, disagreeable weather. 

J. — Harsh, discordant sounds; rank, offensive odors; 
sour, ill-tasted fruit ; a cross, ill-natured teacher ; inatten- 
tive, disobedient, unruly pupils. 

W. — An extensive sandy desert, barren, desolate, and un- 
inhabitable. 

T.— A sound horse, unblemished, gentle, kind, and true. 

D. — Honest, prudent, economical, industrious men. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

JV.—Those venerable, majestic, wide-spreading elms. 

Q. — The glorious morning sun, this charming landscape, 
green hills, pure ivater, crystal fountains. 

i^._Gay, smiling Spring ; bright, fervid Summer ; sober, 
thoughtful, bounteous Autumn ; pale, consumptive Winter. 

R. — The windy summits, wild and high; the pleasant 
valleys, warm and low. 

The waving trees, tlie fairy bowers. 
The verdant fields, the fragrant flowers, 
The sparkling rills, the bubbling fountains. 
Fair vales, and heaven-aspiring mountains. 



VERBS. 

J, — Is there a thought expressed in any of these exam- 
ples? 

Mr. 8. — No : a thought can't be expressed with nouns 
and adjectives, or any of the parts of speech that we have 
yet considered. Thought is to mind what action is to mat- 
ter; and as every action necessarily requires an actor, so 
every thought must have a subject. We cannot think with- 
out thinking of something, nor express a thought without a 
subject. Any persons or things that we think of are the 
subjects of our thoughts ; and what we think of them are 
the thoughts themselves. 

Now I will write upon the blackboard the names of what 
I think of, and you may write them on your slates ; then 
write what you think of them with one word after each 
name. Boys, dogs, and horses are our subjects. What do 
you think of them ? 

/. — We think what we have seen or heard them do. 

Mr, 8. — That's right. Read what you have written. 

M, — Boys speak, dogs bark, horses neigh. 



44 ENGLISH GKA MM AK. 

D. — Boys read, dogs watch, horses run. 

F. — Boys wrestle, dogs fight, horses kick. 

H. — Boys milk, dogs churn, horses plow. 

E. — Boys study, dogs hunt, horses trot. 

G. — Boys quarrel, dogs growl, horses leer. 

R. — Boys sing, dogs whine, horses paw. 

W. — Boys skate, dogs jump, horses canter. 

P. — Boys think, dogs remember, horses drink. 

J, — Boys work, dogs play, horses prance. 

N. — Boys ride, dogs walk, horses draw. 

Mr. 8. — Why don't you tell your thoughts on these sub- 
jects, Thomas ? 

T. — Because I can't think any thing about them that has 
not been already told. 

Mr. 8. — Think what is done to them. 

T,— Boys are whipped, dogs are kicked, horses are fed. 

Mr. 8. — You use two words, Thomas, to express one 
thought. It sometimes takes three or four words to express 
a thought; as, "The horses should have heen fedl^ Such 
words as these we call verbs. 

A verb is a term that expresses what we think of a sub- 
ject.* 

You have written several complete sentences consisting 
of nouns and verbs only. ^^To sentence can be made without 
a verb expressed or understood ; for every sentence must 
contain a thought. The subject of a thought is generally 
expressed by a noun or pronoun, which, for the sake of 
brevity, is called the subject of the verb that expresses the 
thought. 

G. — Can a sentence be made without a noun ? 

Mr. 8. — Yes : pronouns can be used as subjects. Any 
word that makes sense with /, thou, he, she, or it ; 2ve, you, 



♦ A term may consist of one word, or more than one. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

or they, before it as a subject, is a verb. Are am, art, is, 
are, and lightens, verbs ? Try them and see. 

G. — I am, thou art, he is, we are, it Hghtens. 

Mr. S. — Are come, go, stand, fall, rise, s]peaJc, and sjjeechy 
verbs ? 

N.— Speech is not a verb : it doesn^t make sense to sa}^, I 
speech, thou speech, he speech, we speech, you speech, or 
they speech, as it does to say, I speak, etc. 

Mr. S. — As I make or read a few sentences, select the 
verbs. 

I take this book and open it; I shut it, and return it to 
the boy who banded it to me. 

R. — Take, open, shut, return, handed. 

The sun shines, the birds sing, the men are plowing, and 
the lambs skip and play. 

H. — Shines, sing, are plowing, skip, play. 

I throw this book and catch it in my hand.* I hold it 
over Henry's head. ' I raise it, I lower it, I shake it, I drop 
it, I pick it up, I poise it on my thumb and turn it round. 
See it whirl. It falls on the desk and knocks off another 
book. It lies where it was before I took it. 

We write books, we print them, we fold them, we press 
them, we bind them, we pubhsh them, we advertise them, 
we circulate them, we buy and sell them, we read them, wo 
study them, we soil them, we tear them, we spoil them, we 
wear them out, and purchase new ones. 

Books are written, they are printed, they are folded, they 
are pressed, they are bound, they are published, they are 
advertised, they are circulated, they are bought and sold, 
they are read, they are studied, they are soiled, they are torn, 
they are spoiled, they are worn out, and new ones are pur- 
chased. 

* As you read this before your class, or tell what yon are doing, or what is 
taking place around you, let them select the verbs ; and you will have a lively, in- 
teresting, and instructive oral exercise. 



43 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds 
blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell not : for it was 
founded upon a rock. 

He shall give his angels charge over thee, to keep thee 
in all thy ways. They shall bear thee up in their hands, 
lest thou dash thy foot against a stone. Thou shalt tread 
upon the lion and adder : the young lion and the dragon 
shalt thou trample under feet. Because he hath set his love 
upon me, therefore will I deliver him : I will set him on 
high, because he hath known my name. He shall call upon 
me, and I will answer him : I will be with him in trouble ; 
I will deliver him, and honor him. With long life will I 
satisfy him, and show him my salvation. 

If pains afiiict or wrongs oppress, 

If cares distract or fears dismay, 
If guilt deject, if sin distress. 

The remedy's before thee — pray. 

Prayer was appointed to convey 

The blessings God designs to give : 
Long as they live, should Christians pray, 

For only while they pray, they live. 

Lord, who hast suffered all for me. 

My peace and pardon to procure. 
The lighter cross I bear for thee. 

Help me with patience to endure. 

Why should I shrink at thy command, 

Whose love forbids my fears ; 
Or tremble at the gracious hand 

That wipes away my tears ? 

See the Judge our nature wearing. 

Clothed in majesty divine ; 
You, who long for his appearing, 

Then will say, This God is mine. 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

To wake the soul by tender strokes of art, 
To raise the genius, and to mend tlie heart. 
To make mankind in conscious virtue bold, 
Live o'er each scene, and be what they behold — 
For this the Tragic Muse first trod the stage. 
Commanding tears to stream through every age : 
Tyrants no more their savage nature kept, 
And foes to virtue wondered how they wept. 

Our author shuns by vulgar springs to move 
The hero's glory, or the virgin's love : 
In pitying love, we but our weakness show. 
And wild ambition well deserves its woe. . 
Here tears shall flow from a more generous cause. 
Such tears as patriots shed for dying laws : 
He bids your breasts with ancient ardor rise. 
And calls forth Roman drops from British eyes. 
Virtue confessed in human shape he draws. 
What Plato thought, and godlike Cato was : 
No common object to your sight displays. 
But what with pleasure Heaven itself surveys, 
A brave man struggling in the storms of fate, 
And greatly falling with a falling state. 
While Cato gives his little senate laws. 

What bosom beats not in his country's cause ? 

Who sees him act but envies every deed ? 

Who hears him groan, and does not wish to bleed ? 

Even when proud Caesar, 'midst triumphal cars. 

The spoils of nations, and the pomp of wars, 

Ignobly vain, and impotently great, 

Showed Rome her Cato's figure drawn in state. 

As her dead father's reverend image passed. 

The pomp was darkened, and the day o'ercast ; 

The triumph ceased, tears gushed from every eye ; 

The world's great victor passed unheeded by : 

Her last good man dejected Rome adored, 

And honored Caesar's less than Cato's sword. 
Britons, attend : be worth like this approved, 

And show you have the virtue to be moved. 

With honest scorn the first famed Cato viewed 

Rome learning arts from Greece, whom she subdued ; 

Your scene precariously subsists too long 



48 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

On Frencli translation, and Italian song. 
Dare to have sense yourselves ; assert the stage. 
Be justly warmed with your own native rage : 
Such plays alone should win a British ear, 
As Cato's self had not disdained to hear.* 

J. — Is your definition of a verb correct ? Don't it take 
a whole sentence to express a thought ? 

Mr. 8. — Of course, it does; and every sentence must 
contain a subject, as well as a thought, either expressed or 
implied : the thought and subject are inseparably connected 
in conception and expression. None of us can think with- 
out a subject, or express a thought without one. 

J. — If it takes a whole sentence to express a thought, 
and if the subject is a part of the sentence, is it not a part 
of the thought ? and why is the thought expressed by the 
verb any more than by its subject ? Don't a verb express 
an action or a motion, rather than a thought ? 

Mr. S. — Can there be an action without an actor ? or a 
motion without something moving ? Is the actor, then, a 
part of the action? or the thing that moves a part of the mo- 
tion ? Look ! Can any of you see my action as I strike the 
desk, without seeing me ? or see the motion of my hand 
without seeing my hand ? 

jf. — Why, no : the action and the motion are invisible, 
and can't be seen at all. But we can see you strike, and see 
your hand move. 

Mr. 8. — Is not the actor, then, as intimately connected 
with the action as the subject is with the thought, and just 
as much a part of it ? and why can a verb alone express 
an action any more than it can express a thought ? Are 
not the actor and the action mirrored in the mind insep- 



* When your pupils have selected all the verbs In these examples, let them tell 
what you or they are doing, or what has happened in the neighborhood , and make 
them pick out all the verbs they use, and then select them in their compositions, 
reading lessons, hymn-books, or the Bible. Drill tiiem tiU they can select the verbs 
in eveiy sentence that they speak or read. 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

arably, and treasured in the memory as the subject and the 
thought ? 

J. — Verbs do express actions : when you struck the 
desk, you performed an action ; and the verb strike ex- 
presses it. 

Mr, S. — Where is that action ? Is it in existence now ? 

/. — No, sir: it is past and gone. 

Mr. S. — How do you know it ever did exist ? 

J. — I have a clear impression of it in my memory : I re- 
member what you did, and how you acted. 

Mr. S. — Is this impression in your memory an action or 
a thought ? 

J. — I suppose it is a thought ; for it is what I think of 
you : I think you struck the desk. 

Mr. S. — Then it has ceased to be an action, and become 
a thought; and the actor is the subject of the thought 
You think of me ; and therefore I am the subject. You 
think I struck : so struch expresses what you think of a 
subject. When I say, " My horse ran away and broke my 
carriage," do I communicate to you the actions of my horse ? 

E. — No, sir ; no more than you communicate to us the 
horse and carriage : if you did, we all would have his ac- 
tions, and do what he does. You communicate to us your 
thoughts about your horse. 

J. — I give it up. Your definition is correct : a verb ex- 
presses what we think of a subject. What we think is a 
thought, and what we think of is a subject. We don't 
think the horse, but we think of him ; and ra7i and hrohe 
express what we think of him. 

6^.— We think thoughts, and think of subjects. We 
think of persons and things, and make them subjects of 
our thoughts ; we think what we have seen or heard them 
do, and thus convert their actions into thoughts. 

Mr. iS.— See Charles and Edward in that little skiff. 
What do you think they are doing ? 
3 



50 ENGLISHGRAilMAE. 

P. — I think they are fighting. There goes Charles into 
the river. Edward struck him, and knocked him down. 

H. — I think he kicked him into the river. 

W. — I think Charles fell in himself ; and Edward reached 
out his hand to catch him and hold him up. 

T, — No : Edward pushed him into the river. 

N. — I think Edward hit him accidentally with the oar. 

D. — I think Charles dived into the river. There he 
comes swimming beautifully towards the skiff. 

F. — Edward tries to shove him under water with his oar. 

B. — Why, no : he is trying to help him into the skiff. 

Mr. S, — Do you express the actions of these boys with 
the verbs you use, or what you think they do ? 

R. — We express our thoughts : if we expressed their 
actions, we should all agree ; for facts are never contra- 
dictory. But different persons see the same things in dif- 
ferent lights, and have different thoughts on the same 
subjects. 

Mr. 8. — That is true. Some think the sun and moon, 
the stars and planets, all revolve around the earth every 
twenty-four hours ; but philosophers think the earth re- 
volves on its own axis, and thereby makes them seem to 
move around it. Apparent actions frequently deceive us, 
and impress upon our minds erroneous thoughts, which 
sound philosophy corrects. AVhen we are riding in a boat, 
we sometimes think the boat is standing still, and every 
thing else is moving past us. Such illusions we correct by 
reason and reflection. 

J. — Just so the earth's diurnal revolution makes us 
think the sun and moon, the stars and planets, rise and set, 
by making them appear to move around the earth. 

Mr. S. — When we fix our attention on any persons or 
things, and make them subjects, what they do and what is 
done to them are mirrored in the mind and treasured in 
the memory as thoughts, if we receive correct impressions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

When there is no action done by them nor to them, we ob- 
serve their attributes, and, by the power of thought, we link 
each attribute to its appropriate subject as a predicate ; and 
then this linking process constitutes the thought, which is 
expressed grammatically by the verb to de, in logic called 
the copula ; as, " Truth is eternal." " I am Joseph." " Ifc 
is I." " These are they." " Dust thou art'^ " I have leen 
youDg, and now I am old." " He may ie honest." ^" Men 
luould he angels." " If you had teen good, you might have 
heen happy." Here the verbs, is, am, are, art, have leen, 
may le, luould he, had heen, and might have heen, attach to 
their subjects the predicate adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, 
eternal, young, old, honest, good, and happy, Joseph, dust, and 
angels, I and they ; more properly called predicates than any 
other single words in these sentences, because they express 
what we predicate of subjects with is, am, are, etc. ; which 
are not predicates (as some are fond of calling all our verbs), 
but predicatives. This would be a better name for verbs 
than predicate, because it can be properly applied to every 
verb and nothing else. 

J. — I have never heard verbs called predicatives; and I 
am tired of hearing them called predicates. What is the 
use of calling them hard names ? 

Mr. S. — It is of no use at all. Verh is a better name 
than either of these, and it is sanctioned by the best author- 
ities. When I studied grammar verbs were never called 
predicates. This is a logical term, most shamefully abused 
by pedants in applying it to verbs. Predicate properly sig- 
nifies what is predicated, not the word that predicates. 

Logically and metaphysically speaking, thoughts are 
predications : they are mental operations in observing and 
considering actions, and ascribing attributes to subjects. 
When we think, we bring a subject and an attribute to- 
gether, and unite them in the mind ; and this is predica- 
tion. The thinking or the predicating is expressed, in every 



52 EJy'GLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence, by a verb ; which is the focal point where all the 
rays of thought concentrate, and unite the subject and the 
predicate. 

J. — Mr. Smith, here are two definitions corresponding to 
what you have just said about verbs. 

A verb is a term that expresses our thinking of a sub- 
ject. 

A verb is a term that predicates something of a subject. 

Mr. S. — These definitions are correct, but rather too 
abstruse for learners. If any of you like them, use them. 

The essence of a verb consists in thinking or predicating 
something of a subject: strictly speaking, it expresses our 
thinking or predicating, rather than what is thought or pre- 
dicated of a subject. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Mr. S. — With the ideas impressed upon our minds by 
what we see around us, we receive impressions of the rela- 
tions of different objects to each other. We observe that 
one thing is above another or below it, on it or under it, be- 
fore it or behind it ; or is going towards it or from it, around 
it or through it, with it or without it, etc. To express these 
relations another part of speech is necessary. Now select 
the words that express relation in the sentences I make. 

I stand by the desk with this book in my hand. I hold 
it over the desk, under the desk, behind the desk, before the 
desk, against the desk. 

F. — By, with, in, over, under, behind, before, against. 

I move it towards the desk, across the desk, around the 
desk, and put it into the desk. I take it from the desk, 
and lay it on the seat between Euth and Mary. 

P. — Tow^ards, across, around, into, from, on, between. 

Such words as these we call prepositions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

A preposition is a word placed before another to express 
relation. 

Select the prepositions in the sentences I make or read, 
and tell me what relation they express. 

That book on my desk was printed in Boston. 

J. — On expresses the relation of hook to desk : and z^ 
the relation of tvas printed to Boston. 

Those boys behind me are not attending tp their 
studies. 

R. — Behind expresses the relation of toys to 7ne ; and to, 
the relation of are attending to studies. 

The sun shines through the window on the floor. 

E. — How can we tell what words a preposition expresses 
the relation between ? 

Mr. 8. — To ascertain the terms of relation, as we call 
them, find the words that make the best sense, spoken im- 
mediately before and after the preposition. 

E. — The sun through the window, the sun on the floor? 

No : it shines through the window, and shines on the 
floor. 

Throngh expresses the relation of sliines to luindoiu ; and 
on, the relation oi sliines to floor. 

Whom have I in heaven but thee ? and there is none 
upon earth that I desire besides thee. 

G. — Whom in heaven ? whom but thee ? none upon 
earth; none besides thee. In expresses the relation of 
ivhoni to heaven ; hut, the relation of whom to thee; upon, 
the relation of none to earth ; and hesides, the relation of 
none to thee. 

These little things are great to little man. 

M. — Great to man. To expresses the relation of great to 
man. 

Mr. S. — The object of a preposition usually comes after 
it, and is therefore called the subsequent term of relation ; 
and the other one is called the antecedent term, because it 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

generally goes before the preposition. But in poetry the 
usual order is occasionally inverted, as you will observe in 
these examples : 

Did here the trees with ruddier burdens bend, 
And there the streams in purer rills descend ? 

H. — Bend with burdens and descend in rills.* 

The leveled towns with weeds lie covered o'er; 
The hollow winds through naked temples roar ; 
Round broken columns clasping ivy twined ; 
O'er heaps of ruin stalked the stately hind ; 
The fox obscene to gaping tombs retires ; 
And savage bowlings fill the sacred choirs. 

T, — Covered with weeds, roar through temples, twined 
round columns, stalked o'er heaps of ruin, retires to tombs. 

When eve her dewy star beneath 
Thy balmy spirit loves to breathe. 

M. — To breathe beneath her dewy star. 

On him, their second Providence, they hung. 

W. — They hung on him. 

In these deep solitudes and awful cells, 
Where heavenly pensive Contemplation dwells, 
And ever musing Melancholy reigns. 
What means this tumult in a vestal's veins? 

jV;_What in solitudes and cells means this tumult in a 
vestal's veins ? 

Mr. S. — The antecedent term of relation may be any 
part of speech except a preposition or connective, but the 

* After thus uniting the terms of relation with a preposition placed between 
tJiem, let your pupils tell the relation it expresses. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

subsequent term is generally a noun or pronoun, which is 
called the object of the preposition that is placed before it. 
Prepositions are as intimately connected with their objects 
as verbs are with their subjects: a verb makes sense with /, 
tho2i, lie, she, or it, we, you, or they, before it as a subject ; 
and a preposition makes sense with 7ne, thee, him, her, or it, 
us, you, or them, after it as an object ; thus, hy me, above 
thee, to him, for her, of it, between us, behind you, after 
them. 

G. — How can we distinguish verbs and adjectives from 
prepositions ? 

Mr. S. — Some verbs have objects after them, but they 
can be distinguished by their subjects : prepositions have 
no subjects. Adjectives, like prepositions, make good sense 
before nouns, but not before pronouns. Thus, we can cor- 
rectly say, good books and poor Richard, but not good them 
and poor him, as we can say, loithout boohs and without them, 
for Richard and for him, with equal propriety. 

/. — Don't every preposition express the relation of its 
object to the antecedent term ? 

Mr. 8. — Do you see that horse before the carriage ? Does 
before express the relation of the carriage to the horse, or 
the relation of the horse to the carriage ? With which term 
is the meaning of before associated ? 

R. — It expresses the relation that the horse has to the 
carriage, not the relation of the carriage to the horse : its 
meaning is associated with the horse. 

Mr, S. — If you exercise good common sense, you will 
not put the cart before the horse in parsing prepositions, 
and go backward ; for the current of discourse runs forward 
from the antecedent to the subsequent term. The meaning 
of the preposition is associated with the antecedent term, 
the starting point of the relation. If you will unite the 
prepositions in this sentence with the antecedent terms, and 
observe their meaning, you will see : 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The vast expanse above our heads, so darkly, deeply, 
beautifully blue, 

" Spread like an ocean liung on high. 
Bespangled with those isles of light. 
So wildly, spiritually bright ;" 

the earth beneath our feet, with pent-up liquid fire within it, 
struggling constantly for vent, and overflowing through the 
craters of volcanoes with terrific force ; the thunder-clouds 
beyond the distant mountains, towering up like battlements 
between the earth and sky ; boundless space around us, and 
the countless worlds in all directions shining through it ; 
elevate our thoughts and feelings to the contemplation of 
superior power, and produce emotions of sublimity. 

J. — The expanse above, bespangled with, the earth be- 
neath, fire within — I see how the meaning of these preposi- 
tions is associated with the antecedent terms of relation. 

Mr. S. — Tell me what relations are expressed by the 
prepositions in these sentences : 

How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood ! 

M. — To expresses the relation of dear to heart; and of, 
the relation of scejies to childhood. 

I send you forth as lambs among wolves. 

U. — Among expresses the relation of Iambs to zvolves. 

If God be for us, who can be against us ? 

G. — For expresses the relation of be to tcs ; and against y 
the relation of can be to us. 

What trees are those along the road between the river 
and canal ? 

P. — Along expresses the relation of those to road ; and 
between, the relation of those to river and canal. 

11. — Is not trees the antecedent term of relation ? 

Mr. S. — Phebe is exactly right: those is a pronoun repre- 
senting trees. Select the prepositions in what I say, and 
write them on your slates. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

I walk about the house, aud hold this book above my 
head. I go across the room after my ball. I throw it 
against the door. It rolls along the floor amid the seats 
among the children. I tie this string around it. Look at 
it, and see it whirl athwart the desk. Now, it is before me; 
now, behind me ; now, below the desk ; and now, beneath 
my feet. It is now beside the slate ; and now, between those 
boys ; and now, beyond my reach : the string by which it 
was held is broken. I have a ball besides that. Here it is, 
betwixt my thumb and finger. See it roll down stairs. 

All but Henry have been very attentive during this exer- 
cise. It costs you nothing except attention for tuition. 
When we have finished our tasks, you Avill go from the 
school-room in good order into the grove ; behaving like 
young gentlemen and ladies : and if any rude boys come 
near you, be polite notwithstanding their rudeness. Of all 
bad habits, incivility is most apt to find us ofi* our guard. 
There we will sit on the banks of the river and enjoy the 
charming scene ; the waving branches of the blooming trees 
over our heads, the new suspension bridge overthwart the 
stream, the splendid steamboats sailing past us, and the little 
minstrels singing round us. 

M. — Let us go now : v/e have not been there since last 
week. 

Mr. S. — "When we get through our lessons, you may go, 
and stay till night. I go to the window, and look towards 
the river ; I carry this book under my arm, and put it un- 
derneath the other books. I have lived in all good con- 
science before God until this day. What I say unto you I 
say unto all. We clambered up the mountain and stood 
upon the highest peak. With thee, we smile within cold 
prison walls. Without thee, I am poor; and Vvdth thee, 
rich, take what thou wilt away. Are riches worth the toil 
and trouble that they cost ? 

Emma, read what you have written. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. — About, above, across, after, against, along, amid, 
among, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, 
beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, 
during, except, for, from, in, into, like, near, notwithstand- 
ing, of, ofi*, on, over, overthwart, past, round, since, through, 
till, to, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, 
with, within, without, worth. 

Mr. 8. — You have written quite a list of prepositions, all 
arranged in alphabetical order, and containing more than 
half the prepositions in our language — nearly all that are in 
common use. But don't depend upon this list ; for many of 
these words are often used as other parts of speech. In fact 
you do not need it ; for you can distinguish prepositions now 
by their construction : you have made this list yourselves by 
doing so. Like other parts of speech, they are best known 
by their construction. Now compose a few sentences con- 
taining prepositions. 

F. — My slate lies on the desk under my books. 

N. — The bird is in her nest upon that tree. 

P. — See those horses trot along the road before the car- 
riage. 

H. — Bring me some peaches from the tree behind the 
barn. 

M. — Eivers rise among mountains, and run through val- 
leys to the sea. 

G. — The tops of high mountains are covered with 
snow. 

D, — He came into the house in haste, without knocking 
at the door, or asking for admission. 

T. — I drop this pencil from between my fingers. 

E. — They took up the cable from under the sea. 

J. — I bought a hat worth six dollars for five. 

W. — There is no living with you nor without you. 

R. — A good man never envies them that are above him, 
nor despises them that are below him ; but, with charity 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

towards all and malice to none, like his divine Master, he 
goes about doing good.* 

jifr. S. — Sometimes two prepositions are used together ; 
as, from above, from amo7ig, from around, from before, from 
behind, from betiveen, from beyond, from under, over against, 
round about, etc. " Come out from amoiuj them." ^- They 
came from beyond the sea." " The scepter shall not depart 
from Judah, nor a lawgiver /ro?n between his feet." "A fierj 
stream issued and came forth from before him." In' such a 
sentence the two prepositions seem to express a double rela- 
tion. They may be taken together as a compound prepo- 
sition; and so may according to, as to, as for, because of, and 
out of. Some words of a participial form appear to be in a 
state of transition, wavering between verbs and prepositions, 
with a sUght dependence on their subjects. Concerning, ex- 
cepting, regarding, respecting, and touching, are sometimes 
prepositions ; as, '•' I have heard but little concerning him 
excepting his failure." 



ADVERBS. 

Mr, 8. — ^When we think what has been done by any 
person or thing, the manner, time, and place of doing it is 
generally associated with the thought; and to express these 
ideas other words are added to the verb, which modify its 
meaning; as, "He spoke earnestly and eloquently." "He 
preached here yesterday." Sometimes our ideas of qualities 
and even of re^ations are so modified as to require additional 
words attending adjectives and prepositions to express them ; 



* Let your pupils select the prepositions in these sentences, and tell what rela- 
tions they express. Drill them thoroughly in making sentences and telling what 
relation every preposition that they use expresses. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as "This apple is rather sour, and that is very sour." "The 
nadir is the point directly under our feet." 

H. — We don't exactly understand the drift of 3'our re- 
marks. Will you be a little more explicit ? 

Mr. S. — Shall we have a little object teaching? Can 
you see or hear me do anything without thinking how I do 
it, when I do it, or where I do it ? and when you express 
your thoughts so modified as to tell how, when, or where it 
is done, don't you add to the verb some word denoting 
manner, time, or place? How do I walk? when? and 
where ? 

M. — You walked slowly, first ; then, swiftly. ISTow you 
walk lightly and gracefully; now, heavily, clumsily, and 
awkwardly ; now, carefully ; and now, carelessly ; now, for- 
ward ; now, backward ; and now, sideways. You walk here 
and there, northward and southward, eastward and west- 
ward. You walk often, daily and hourly. 

Mr. 8. — What a multitude of words you've added to the 
verb lualh to tell how, when, and where, I walk ! 

We call such words as these adverbs, because they are 
added to verbs. But the use of adverbs is more general 
than their name implies ; for they are frequently added to 
prepositions, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " The zenith 
is the point exactly over our heads." " He is a truly goo^i 
man." "I am heartily glad." "Don't read too fast P 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, a 
preposition, or another adverb. 

As I make or read a few sentences, select the adverbs, 
and tell me to what words they are added. 

I take up this ball and hold it exactly over Henry's 
head. Now I throw it down. It rolls directly towards the 
door, almost across the room. 

J. — TJ'p is added to tahe ; exactly, to over ; now and 
down, to throw ; directly, to towards; and almost, to 
across. 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

You will never be yery good readers, if you do not read 
more carefully, and not quite so fast. 

R. — Never is added to will he; very, io good ; not \mdi 
car e f idly y to do read ; more, to carefully ; quite and so, to 
fast ; rLnd/<25'^, to do read. 

They that are too lazy to work are generally too lazy to 
study. 

//. — Too is added to lazy ; and generally, to are., 

Tlius he, for then a ray of reason stole 
^lalf through the solid darkness of his soul. 

E.— Tlius is added to sjpohe understood; tlien, to stole ; 
and lialf, to through. 

Listen attentively, study diligently, and think closely; 
or you will never be well educated.* 

Speak fearlessly and openly, but kindly and respectfully; 
and you will seldom give offence. 

I came here very early yesterday, and went home rather 
late. The birds sing sweetly, and hop about merrily. 

How beautifully they fly through the air, upward and 
downward, hither and thither ! 

How does he read ? Not very well ; he reads too fast. 

They admired her the most who knew her best. 

So much the more is he to be pitied. 

The more I read this book, the better I like it. 

When shall we all meet again ? l^ever, here below. 

So live, that you can always look back joyfully on a life 
usefully and virtuously employed. 

Happier hours than those which we have spent together 
I do not expect to see any more. Very pleasantly did they 
pass: the wheels of time moved swiftly and smoothly 
along. 



* Let your grammar class select the adverbs in these sentences, and tell to 
what words thej are added. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There is always somethmg painful in parting with our 
friends ; especially, if we have no prospect of seeing them 
again. 

So live, tliat you each year may be. 

While time glides softly by, 
A little farther from, the earth, 

And nearer to the sky. 



CONNECTIVES. 

E. — Have you not explained all the parts of speech ? 

Mr. S. — Can you talk a minute without using any part 
of speech except what we have now explained ? Try it, and 
see. Will you come to school to-morrow ? 

E. — I will come, if I can. But I suppose I shall 
have to stay at home; for father and mother are going 
away. 

Mr. S. — What office do if, and, hut^ and /or, perform in 
what you have just said ? Omit them, and see what a lack 
of connection there will be. 

E. — I will come — I can — I suppose I shall have to 
stay at home — father — mother are going away. 

0! I see. If connects "I can" to "I will come;" hut 
connects "I suppose I shall have to stay at home" to "I 
will come, if I can ; " and connects mother to father ; and 
for connects "father and mother are going away "to "I 
suppose I shall have to stay at home." Do you call such 
words connecters ? 

Mr. 8. — They are generally called conjunctions. But, as 
they are connecters of our words and sentences and not their 
connections or conjunctions, they should be called connect- 
ives or conjunctives, for the same reason that we call detect- 
ers of criminals detectives and not detections. I call them 
connectives as analogy requires. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

A connective is a word that connects words or phrases, 
clauses, sentences, or paragraphs. 

Without connectives we should be obliged to speak in 
separate sentences, and not be able to express a regular train 
of reasoning. They are the joints and hinges of discourse, 
that hold together different words and sentences. How 
beautifully the thoughts expressed in argumentative dis- 
courses hang and turn upon each other, held together by 
connectives ! 

As I speak or read a few sentences, select the connect- 
ives and tell me what they connect, then write them on 
your slates. 

John came to school after his class had read. 

M. — After connects " his class had read " to "John came 
to school." 

Charles and Henry read as they talk. 

P. — And connects Henry to Charles; and c^s connects 
"they talk" to " Charles and Henry read." 

Because I live, ye shall live also. 

H. — Because connects " I live " to " ye shall live also." 

I called him before he went away, but he did not answer me. 

D. — Before connects "he went aw^ay " to "I called him;" 
and hut connects '' he did not answer me" to " I called him 
before he went away." 

I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. 

G. — Except connects "thou bless me" to "I will not let 
thee go." 

Be not dismayed ; for I am thy God. 

N. — For connects "I am thy God" to "be not dis- 
mayed." 

We cannot tell how the sun warms the earth. 

E. — Hoiu connects " the sun warms the earth " to " we 
cannot tell." 

True merit, however it may be neglected for a time, will 
ultimately be acknowledged and respected. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. — Hoioever connects " it may be neglected for a time " 
to "true merit will ultimately be acknowledged and respect- 
ed ; " and connects respected to achnoioledged. 

If you love me, keep my commandments. 

F. — If connects " you love me " to " keep my command- 
ments." 

Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

W. — Lest connects "thou come to poverty" to "love not 



Let not your heart be troubled ; neither let it be afraid. 

T. — Neither connects " let it be afraid " to " let not your 
heart be troubled." 

I am crucified with Christ : nevertheless I live. 

J. — Nevertheless connects " I live " to " I am crucified 
with Christ." 

Despise no deformity of body nor any infirmity of mind, 
lest it be your own lot. 

M. — Nor connects "any infirmity of mind" to "no 
deformity of body;" and lest connects "it be your own 
lot" to "despise no deformity of body nor any infirmity 
of mind." 

Were you in the cabin, or on the deck ? 

P. — Or connects " on the deck" to "in the cabin." 

He is my guest : otherwise I would deliver him up. 

D. — Otherwise connects "I would deliver him up" to 
" he is my guest." 

Since the universe could not create itself, it must have 
been created : so there is a wise, benevolent, and omnipotent 
Creator. 

H. — Since connects "the universe could not create it- 
self" to "it must have been created;" and so connects 
"there is a wise, benevolent, and omnipotent Creator" to 
" since the universe could not create itself, it must have 
been created." 

A bird can fly faster than a horse can run. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

E. — Than connects " a horse can run '' to "a bird can 
fly faster." 

Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

G. — That connects '-ye be not judged" to "judge not." 

Then say not man's imperfect, heaven in fault. 

J. — Then connects " say not man's imperfect, heaven in 
fault " to the preceding paragraph.* 

She is not proud, though she is rich. 

R. — Though connects " she is rich " to " she is not proud." 

I will stay here till they return. 

N. — Till connects " they return " to " I will stay here." 

The scepter shall not depart from Judah — until Shiloh 
come. 

T — Until connects " Shiloh come " to " the scepter shall 
not depart from Judah." 

You cannot learn, unless you study. 

F. — Unless connects "you study" to " you cannot learn." 

It moves when he moves, and it goes where he goes. 

J. — When connects " he moves " to " it moves ; " and 
connects "it goes where he goes" to "it moves when he 
moves ;" and ivhere connects " he goes " to " it goes." 

Therefore whether it were I or they, so we preach, and 
so ye believed. 

M. — Therefore connects this verse to the preceding ; 
ivhether connects " it were I or they " to " so we preach, and 
so ye believed ; " and connects " so ye believed " to " so we 
preach ; " and or connects they to /. 

While I was musing the fire burned. 

P. — While connects " I was musing " to " the fire burned." 

But I am poor and needy ; yet the Lord thinketh upon me. 

E. — But connects this sentence to the preceding ; and 
connects needy to 2^oor ; and yet connects " the Lord think- 
eth upon me " to " I am poor and needy." 

* See Pope's Essay on Man. 



66 ENGLISH GBAMM A R. 

Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became 
poor. 

J. — Yet, with its correlative though, connects "for your 
sakes he became poor " to " he was rich." 

R. — What ! are though and yet both used as connectives 
to connect the same clauses ? 

Mr. 8. — Yes : we have a few connectives that are used 
in pairs to connect the same words or clauses ; as, " He is 
hoth a poet and an orator." " They are either knaves or 
fools." " She can neither read nor write." "As three is to 
nine so is four to twelve." The connectives in each of these 
pairs have a mutual relation ; each depending on the other, 
and both connecting the same words or clauses. They are, 
therefore, called correlative connectives. 

Mary, read the connectives that you have written. 

M, — After, and, as, because, before, but, except, for, how, 
however, if, lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, or, otherwise, 
since, so, than, that, then, therefore, though, till, until, un- 
less, when, where, whether, while, yet. 

Mr. S. — You have made a pretty good list of connectives. 
These are almost all we have in common use, and many of 
them are often used as other parts of speech. So you see, 
this list cannot be depended on. Like other words, con- 
nectives are distinguished by the oflBce they perform in sen- 
tences, as you have just distinguished these without the aid 
of any list.* 

/. — Are after, as, lefore, how, however, otherivise, since, 
so, till, ivhen, luhere, and while, connectives ? We have all 
been taught to call them conjunctive adverbs. 

R. — I think they ought to be called connective adverbs, 
or adverbial connectives, because they perform the ofifice of 
adverbs and connectives : each of them expresses time, place, 

* Let your grammar class select connectives in their common conversation, in 
their reading lessons, and the Bible, and tell what they connect in every sentence. 
Drill them till they underBtand connectives thoroughly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

degree, or manner, and connects different parts of a sentence 
at the same time. 

Mr. 8. — " After the death of my father I lived with my 
uncle. We went away before sunrise, and stayed till sun- 
down. It is almost a hundred years since the declaration of 
our independence." Wonld you call after, hefore, till, and 
since, prepositional adverbs in these sentences, because they 
denote time ? , 

;E. — No, sir: they have not the construction of ad- 
verbs, but of prepositions, in these sentences. Nobody 
ever calls them prepositional adverbs or adverbial prepo- 
sitions. 

]\£f, g, — Then why should they be called conjunctive ad- 
verbs in "such sentences as these: " After my father died I 
lived with my uncle. We went away before the sun rose, 
and stayed till it was down. It is almost a hundred years 
since our independence was declared." In these sentences 
they have the construction of connectives, not of adverbs. 
It is not the expression of degree or manner, time or place, 
that characterizes adverbs as a part of speech, but their con- 
struction in a sentence — their relation to a verb or adjective, 
a preposition or another adverb. 

J. — " We wept when we remembered Zion." " I trem- 
bled as I gazed." Does not whe7i relate to toept and re- 
memlered, and as to trembled and gazed, and modify their 
meaning ? 

Mr. S. — The meaning of tcept is modified by "when we 
remembered Zion ; " and the meaning of tremhled is modi- 
fied by " as I gazed." 

M. — How many sorts of connectives have we ? 

Mr, S. — Formerly we had but two sorts ; copulative and 
disjunctive. Now different grammarians classify them very 
differently; some making five or six, and others ten or 
twelve classes. Such classification is of little use in ana- 
lyzing or correcting sentences. It puzzles learners more 



bb ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

than it assists them. Therefore we will not attempt to 
classify connectives. Perspicuity requires us to avoid un- 
necessary distinctions. 

We have now considered all the parts of speech. How 
many are there ? Eepeat them and see. 

H. — Exclamations, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, 
prepositions, adverbs, and connectives. There are eight. 



EXERCISE IN MAKING SENTENCES. 

E. — Let us have an exercise in making sentences. 

Mr. S. — Very well. Begin with short sentences con- 
taining nothing but nouns and verbs, or pronouns and 
verbs, and gradually advance to longer ones containing all 
the parts of speech. 

W. — Boys study. Good boys study diligently at school 
and ]earn their lessons thoroughly ; remembering that per- 
severance conquers all things. 

R. — Bees make honey. Bees gather honey, not by flit- 
ting carelessly from flower to flower, but by abiding on each 
flower tiU they extract its sweetness. 

How doth the little busy bee 

Improve each shining hour. 
And gather honey all the day 

From every opening flower 1 

In works of labor or of skill 

I would be busy too ; 
For Satan finds some mischief still 

For idle hands to do. 

P. — Roses bloom. Roses bloom most sweetly after gen- 
tle summer showers, like Beauty bathed in tears, with sun- 
shine in her countenance. Some of the sweetest roses, like 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

unpretending merit, bloom along the wayside among neg- 
lected thorns. 

Oft have I seen, on yon neglected thorn, 

A blooming rose, bright as the blushing mom. 



The rose had been washed, just washed in a shower. 

Which Mary to Anna conveyed : 
The plentiful moisture encumbered the flower, 

And weighed down its beautiful head. 

The cup was all filled, and the leaves were all wet ; 

And it seemed, to a fanciful view, 
To weep for the buds it had left with regret 

On the flourishing bush where it grew. 

I hastily seized it, unfit as it was, 
• For a nosegay, so dripping and drowned ; 
And, swinging it rudely, too rudely, alas I 
I snapped it — it fell to the ground. 

And such, I exclaimed, is the pitiless part 

Some act by the delicate mind ; 
Regardless of wringing and breaking a heart 

Already to sorrow resigned. 

This beautiful rose, had I shaken it less. 

Might have bloomed with its owner a while : 

And the tear that is wiped with a little address, 
May be followed, perhaps, by a smile.* 

Mr. S. — Too much of this is borrowed. Clothe your 
thoughts in your own language. Make original sentences. 
You all can talk without using other people's language. 
Let us see if you cannot write without borrowing a single 
expression. It is better for us all to wear our own clothes. 



* Let your grammar class distinguish all the parts of speech in these examples, 
keeping their attention fixed on but one at a time. By doing so you will prevent 
confusion, and review them all in Bystematic order. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

however plain and coarse they may be, than to shine and 
dazzle in gay clothing that belongs to others. Advance 
more gradually from short sentences to long ones. Follow 
nature. Choose your subjects for yourselves. There is a 
boundless field before you : all the works of nature and of 
art. In every place a great variety of subjects can be found. 
Take particular notice of everything you see : consider what 
it does, and what is done to it. Learn from observation. 
Keep within the limits of your knowledge when you speak 
or write, and never use a word that you don't understand. 

NoAv write the names of any persons or things that you 
think of, and what you think they do. 

E. — John laughs. Henry whispers. Mary studies. 

F. — Birds fly. Men walk. Children play. Ships sail. 

3£. — rish swim. Ice floats. Bees sting. Cats scratch. 

D, — Eivers flow. Grass grows. Winter comes. Snow 
falls. 

H. — Fire burns. Water boils. Smoke ascends. Clouds 
arise. Winds blow. Vapors condense. Eain descends. 

G. — Foxes catch geese. Hounds chase foxes. Wolves 
kill sheep. Hunters shoot wolves. Bears eat corn. 

W. — Charles is using Emma's slate. John is making 
pictures. Mary's brother Samuel is riding Henry's horse. 

Mr. 8. — Write the names of any persons or things that 
you think of, and what you think is done to them. 

T, — Birds are shot. Fish are caught. Wood is burned. 
Ice is melted. Water is heated. Cows are milked. Sheep 
are sheared. 

R. — Land is cultivated. W^heat is ground. Bread is 
baked. Turkeys are roasted. Potatoes are boiled. 

J. — Countries are invaded. Nations are conquered. 
Kings are dethroned. Cities are destroyed. Empires are 
devastated. Kingdoms are depopulated. 

Mr. S. — All the sentences that you have just made con- 
sist of nouns and verbs only. You may now use pronouns 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

as subjects and make sentences of pronouns and verbs. 
Use exclamations and adjectives wben they are needed. 

F. — I live, I move, I breathe, I eat, I drink, I work, I 
rest, I sleep. Thou, Lord, seest all I do ; thou hearest 
what I say ; thou knowest what I think. 

N. — A bad boy does many wicked things, which he 
thinks are concealed: he swears, he lies, he cheats, he 
steals. , 

E. — Euth is reading. She has a new book. It contains 
some excellent stories. She bought it herself. 

M. — We see, we hear, we feel, we taste, we smell, we 
perceive, we observe, we believe, we know, we learn, we 
remember, we reflect, we judge, we reason, we converse. 

F. — We are struck, we are hurt, we are whipped, we are 
chastised, we are corrected, we are punished, we are in- 
structed, we are enlightened, we are informed, we are ad- 
vised, we are convinced, we are persuaded, we are converted, 
we are pleased, we are amused, we are delighted. 

D. — You are clothed, you are fed, you are protected, you 
are educated, you are honored, you are respected. 

R. — Houses are built, they are bought, they are sold, 
they are occupied, they are warmed, they are ventilated, 
they are papered, they are swept, they are cleaned.* 

H. — Oaks grow; streams flow. Oaks grow from acorns; 
streams flow from fountains. 

Tall oaks from little acorns grow ; 
Large streams from feeble fountains flow. 

N. — Flowers bloom and shed their fragrance. 



* Exercise your grammar class occasionally in usirg all the verbs that they can 
use with one subject, and then let them see how many subjects can be used with 
one verb; as, "Roses bud, blow, wither, fade, and die.*' "Horses are pastiired, 
they are stabled, they are curried, they are saddled, they are bridled, they are har- 
nessed, they are driven, etc." " Men, women, and children, talk." " Beasts, birds, 
fish, bees, flies, snakes, toads, worms, corn, rye, wheat, oats, and barley, grow." 



72 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

There vernal flowers forever bloom, 
And shed their fragrance round the tomb. 

T, — The sun rises, and the trees blossom. The sun rises 
in the morning, and the trees blossom in the spring. 
G. — Tom struts, Will sneaks. 

Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave ; 
Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding knave. 

E. — The sun shines and spreads his glories: Science 
sheds her ray. 

The morning sun shines from the east 
And spreads his glories to the west ; 
So Science sheds her lurid ray 
O'er lands which long in darkness lay. 

P. — I shall bathe my soul, and not a wave roll. 

There I shall bathe my weary soul 

In seas of heavenly rest. 
And not a wave of trouble roll 

Across my peaceful breast. 

Mr. S. — You can see from this exercise that verbs with 
their subjects and objects, which are generally nouns or 
pronouns, constitute the frame- work of sentences. The 
other parts of speech are mere appendages, to finish and 
adorn them. 

J. — Will you tell us how to write sentences containing 
predicate adjectives and predicate nouns and pronouns ? 

Mr. S. — Certainly. Write the names of any persons or 
things that you think of, or pronouns representing their 
names, and then write what you think they are, or what 
they become or seem to be.* 



* This ie liable to the variations of verbs in mood and tense, and the diflferent 
forms of conjugation. 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

J. — I see, I see ! A predicate adjective or jjredicate noun 
or pronoun is the word that we use with a verb to tell what 
we think the subject is, or what it will be or may be, or 
what it becomes or seems to be; as, "Some think John is 
honest ; but I think he is a rogue, because he has become 
rich suddenly without work." 

Mr. S. — Now try your skill in using predicate adjectives, 
and predicate nouns and pronouns. 

G. — The weather is ivarm. The roads are dry and dusty. 
Our house is painted ivhite. The sun shines tright. Rome 
was called the eternal city. 

M. — The air grows cooler. It feels damp and chilly. 
The sky looks hazy. I think it will be a rainy day. 

D. — The days grow longer, and the nights are pleasant 
It is spring. The little lambs and birds are glad to see it. 
How innocent and happy they appear ! The fields look 
fresli and gay. How sweet the flowers smell ! 

H. — Cotton is dead, and Labor is our king. Thieves are 
liars; but every liar is not a thief. Dr. Johnson used to 
say, " Whigs are rogues ; and every rogue, a whig." 

E. — Who was it ? Was it you or they 9 Whose pens are 
these ? Are they yours ? What is mine is thi7ie. 

T. — " Is he honest ? and is he capable 9 " were once the 
questions asked by voters about a candidate for office. 

P. — I am young, and you are old. We shall be wiser 
as we grow older. He appears to be a gentleman. Ap- 
pearances are deceitful : things are seldom zvhat they 
seem. 

J. — Somebody asked the lecturer this question : " When 
does a moderate drinker become a drunhard ? " And this 
was his rejt???/ .• "When does a pig become a hog?" Can 
one question be an ansiver to another ? 

Pi. — The green earth is our carpet, and the spangled 
heavens are our canopy. We can truly say, "How mighty I 
how majestic! and 0, how heautiful are nature's works!'* 
4 



74 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 

All discord, harmony not understood ; 

All partial evil, universal good.'^ 

E. — Do you call adjectives and nouns and pronouns 
predicates ? Is not the grammatical predicate always a 
verb? 

J. — To express a thought or predicate something of a 
subject is the essential characteristic of a verb : predication 
is its very essence. We predicate mentally at every thought, 
ascribing an attribute to a subject ; and when we speak 
what we think we predicate verbally. We cannot think 
without predicating something of a subject. In every sen- 
tence the predicating or thinking is expressed with a verb. 
The predicate is the word that expresses what is predicated 
of a subject. All verbs predicate, and this office is per- 
formed by no other part of speech ; while some verbs do 
not express what is predicated, but serve as copulas to unite 



* Pupils should be drilled in exercises like these till they acquire a thorough 
knowledge of the parts of speech. They should be led along gradually from short 
sentences to long ones, according to the method here presented. They should be 
taught to think for themselves, and use original expressions as they do in talking. 
After they have written they should read each other's sentences, and tell the part 
of speech that every word belongs to, suggest improvements, and correct what 
seems to them improper, guided and directed by the teacher ; who should cnllivate 
their taste and judgment by occasionally asking them which of two or three expres- 
sions is the best. Thus, children may become good practical grammarians, quick to 
see the beauty and propriety of words fitly spoken, before they learn the rules 
of syntax. 

In teaching grammar, we should draw our theory from practice, as we do in 
teaching arithmetic : we should first teach it as an art, and then as a science ; by 
example first, and then by precept. We illustrate all the rules of arithmetic by 
thorough practical exercises, so that every pupil in the class can tell the substance 
of them without committing them to memory. This should be done in grammar : 
pupils should be drilled in making sentences before they learn the rules of syntax ; 
for without preparatory exercises they can never understand them. In receiving 
and imparting knowledge, we should all observe the principles of inductive philos- 
oi)hy, which are based on common sense and constant observation of particular 
facts and things. No other system of instruction has any solid ground to rest on. 
Speculative theories, however elegant in style, are empty bubbles of imagination, 
which explode and vanish "like the baseless fabric of a vision." 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

predicates and subjects; and several parts of speech, and 
even phrases and clauses, are used as predicates. Conse- 
quently, verbs might much more properly be called predica- 
tives than predicates. When a noun or pronoun, or an 
adjective — 

Mr. 8. — Stop, James : such metaphysical discussions are 
not profitable to children that are learning grammar. Give 
us a few examples of predicate nouns and pronouns and 
predicate adjectives. 

/.—God is love. I am a Roinan. It is /. Thou art 
the man. I am he. With the talents of an angel, a man 
may be a fool. She is young and leautiful. He was poor ; 
but now he is rich. that they were luise ! By the grace 
of God, I am ^Dhat I am. Alexander died a drunlcard. I 
am called a roller ; but he is styled a conqueror. Ice feels 
cold and smooth. Pinks smell siueet. This apple tastes 
litter. The moon looked red. The sun rose hright. Calm 
was the day. Just and true are thy ways. Keen blows the 
wind, 3iB.d piercing is the cold. 

The midsummer sun shines but dim, 
The fields strive in vain to look gay; 

But when I am happy in him, 
December 's as pleasant as May. 

While blest with a sense of his love, 

A palace a toy would appear ; 
And prisons would palaces prove, 

If Jesus would dwell with me there. 

Strictly speaking, the nouns and pronouns and adjectives 
that express what is predicated in these examples are the 
real predicates, and not the verbs ; for they only predicate 
the qualities or attributes, and serve as copulas to unite 
them to the subjects. 

3Ir. S. — As verbs frequently express what is predicated, 
as well as the predication, some grammarians improperly call 



76 ENGLISH QKAMMAE. 

all verbs predicates ; applying to them a logical term never 
meant to designate a part of speech, and thereby mixing up 
grammar with logic, and causing learners great perplexity 
and trouble to distinguish the grammatical from the logical 
predicate. Strictly speaking, the predicate includes the verb 
and all its adjuncts or appendages, and sometimes consists 
of half a dozen parts of speech ; as, " My friend was killed 
accidentally in his own liouser Predicate is not the name 
of a part of speech, but the name of a part of a sentence. 

H. — Some grammarians call verbs asserters, because they 
express assertion. 

P, — Do we assert when we use a verb to ask a question, 
or to command or request ; as, " Shall we ever meet again ? " 
" Remember me." 

Mr. S. — Not exactly ; for we neither affirm nor deny in 
such sentences. But we can predicate imperatively, con- 
ditionally, and interrogatively, as well as affirmatively and 
negatively; for, as thinking consists in putting together 
attributes and subjects mentally in every conceivable man- 
ner, so does predication consist in expressing every modifi- 
cation of thought; as in these examples: 

If they are guilty, they must be punished. United, we 
stand ; divided, we fall. She sat like Patience on a monu- 
ment, smiling at grief. Some eat to live, and others live to 
eat. Be silent and attentive. Be thou the rainbow to the 
storms of life. Am I a Jew ? Are they Hebrews ? Is it 
I ? Who art thou ? Whose son is he ? What is friendship 
but a name ? What books are these ? Are they yours ? 
Mary says they are not hers. That book is mine. 

After making and observing so many different sentences, 
can you tell me what a sentence is ? 

G. — A sentence is two or more words put together, 
making complete sense. 

F. — A sentence is two or more words so united as to 
make complete sense. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

D. — A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes 
complete sense. 

T. — A sentence is a collection of words that makes com- 
plete sense. 

W. — A sentence is a number of words so put together as 
to make complete sense. 

P. — A sentence is a group of words that makes com- 
plete sense. , 

H. — A sentence is a word, or a combination of words, 
that makes complete sense. 

N. — A sentence is such an expression of thought as 
makes complete sense. 

J, — A sentence is an expression of thought in words, 
making complete sense. 

R. — A sentence is an oral or written expression of 
thought that makes complete sense. 

M. — A sentence is an oral or written expression of 
thought making complete sense. 

E. — A sentence is such an expression of thought in 
words, as makes complete sense. * 

Mr, S. — You have all done very well. Compare your 
definitions of a sentence. Criticise them candidly, and then 
decide which is the best. Do you agree with me in giving 
Ruth the preference ? 

R. — I like Mary's definition better than mine, and Em- 
ma's better than hers. 

J. — I like Henry's definition better than theirs. 

Mr, 8. — Can you make a sentence with one word ? Try. 

J. — Come. Look. Listen. Each of these verbs is such 
an expression of thought as makes complete sense, and is 
therefore a sentence. 



* Use any of these definitions that yon like the best. If none of them please 
you, make a better one, or let your pupils do it. Drill them now and then in 
making definitions. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mr. S. — Does not every thought require a subject ? and 
is not thou, ye or you understood as the subject of each of 
these verbs ? 

/. — Is not the sense complete without thou, ye or you? 

Mr. 8. — We'll leave this question open for discussion. 
Let us have another exercise in making sentences. Begin 
with verbs, and gradually advance to sentences containing 
all the parts of speech. 

R. — Awake. Arise. Run. Stop. Beware. Eead. 
Write. 

E. — Obey. Obey your parents. My dear young friends, 
always obey your parents and teachers with the utmost 
readiness. 

M. — Speak. Speak kindly. Speak kindly and politely 
to the rudest people. Never speak unkindly, even to those 
who ridicule you and insult you; for kind words very often 
make our enemies our best friends, and unkind words some- 
times make our friends our worst enemies. 

By unkind words to friends unkindly spoken. 
How often are tlie ties of friendshij) broken ! 

J. — Do not these examples clearly prove my doctrine, 
that a verb alone can be a sentence in English, as well as in 
Latin ? 

Mr. S. — That the verb contains the essence of the sen- 
tence and is its very life and spirit, is indeed true; for all 
the thought expressed in any sentence is concentrated in 
the verb. The ancient grammarians, therefore, called it 
verhiim, the word, by way of eminence. But, as we cannot 
think without thinking of something, so the thought and 
subject are inseparably connected ; consequently, every verb 
requires a subject, either expressed or understood. 

Jl, — Can't we make a sentence of a noun without a verb? 
When we speak the name of what we want, don't it make 
complete sense, so that every body understands us just as 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

well as if we used more words ? When we are eating, if we 
say, " Bread, milk, water, tea, sugar, butter, beef, or mut» 
ton," is not the sense complete ? and are we not as clearly 
understood as if we say, " I want some bread, milk, water, 
tea, etc.?" 

Mr. S. — Certainly: but the other words are so clearly 
implied that they are readily understood, and therefore need 
not be expressed. Such expressions are fragments of sen- 
tences, with two of the principal parts (the subject and the 
verb) omitted. 

J. — Are not verbs in Latin very often used without a 
subject? As vivit is equivalent in sense to he lives, is it not 
a sentence, making complete sense without a subject either 
expressed or understood ? " Vivit ? " Does he live ? 

3Ir. S. — These children cannot understand such ques- 
tions: they have never studied Latin. Let us keep within 
the limits of plain English and good common sense. As no 
action can take place without an actor, and no deed be done 
without a doer, and as there can be no attribute without a 
substance or something real or imaginary to which it is 
ascribed, so no thought can be expressed without a subject. 

J. — Is not " Veni, vidi, vici," as complete a sentence as 
'' I came, I saw, I conquered," though it consists of verbs 
without a subject ? 

Mr. S. — Stop, James, stop spouting Latin. Let us study 
our own language first. 

F. — Are each of these verbs and its subject a sentence ? 

3Ir. S. — No : they are so dependent and united that they 
do not make complete sense separately, as all of you can see 
by carefully observing them. " I came, I saw, I conquered." 
All three of these expressions must be taken together as 
clauses of a compound sentence; for the sense is incom- 
plete, so that the sentence is not finished till we come to the 
end of the last clause. When such an expression makes 
complete sense alone it is followed by a full stop, because 



80 ENQLISHQRAMMAR, 

the sentence is entirely finished; as, "The sun shines. The 
grass grows. The flowers bloom. The birds sing." Each 
of these expressions is a sentence. When such expressions 
are not separated by a full stop they are clauses of a com- 
pound sentence; as, "The sun shines, the grass grows, the 
flowers bloom, and the birds sing." 

R. — How can we make a sentence a clause ? 

Mr. S. — By using it as a part of a compound sentence. 
Let us drop this subject : you are not prepared to under- 
stand it fully. Wait till we begin to analyze sentences. 



<^<:t^Qt'^:^^c^^ 



CONYERSATION III. 

CUSSIFICATION AND VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, 
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Mr. S. — How many brothers and sisters have you, Emma ? 

E. — I have five brothers and four sisters. 

Mr. 8. — What are their names ? 

E. — Edward, Henry, Robert, Charles, and William ; Mar- 
tha, Mary, Ruth, and Ida. 

Mr. S. — When you want to distinguish one of them 
from all the rest, if you should say, my brother or my sister, 
who would know which one you mean ? 

E. — That would mean any of them. I would say, my 
brother Edward, Henry, Robert, Charles, or WiUiam ; my 
sister Martha, Mary, Ruth, or Ida. 

Mr. S. — Brother and sister are common names ; Edward, 
Henry, Robert, Charles, and William, Martha, Mary, Ruth, 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

and Ida^ are proper names. Grammarians call proper 
names proper nouns, and common names common nouns. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual. 

A common noun is the name of a species or class. 

G. — Are all proper names proper nouns ? and all com- 
mon names common nouns ? 

Mr. S. — Certainly : all the proper names of men, women, 
and children, that you are acquainted with, or read of in 
your Bible, reading-books, newspapers, or histories ; and all 
the proper names of countries, states, counties, towns, cities, 
villages, rivers, lakes, seas, islands, mountains, etc., that you 
can find in your geography or atlas, are proper nouns ; and 
all the common names that are defined in your dictionary 
are common nouns. Domestic animals are generally distin- 
guished by proper names, as well as persons and places. 
"What do you call your canary birds, your cats and dogs, 
your horses, cows, and oxen, to distinguish them from 
others ? 

M — We call our canary bird Jennie, our cat Tom, and 
our dog Carlo. We have proper names for all our horses, 
cows, and oxen. 

3Ir. S. — We seldom give proper names to wild animals, 
or to such things as stones, trees, plants, and flowers. 

F. — Are not lilies, pi7ilcs, and roses, proper names of 
flowers ? 

Mr. S. — They are not the names of individual flowers, 
but the names of species of flowers, common to millions of 
individual lilies, pinks, and roses. Such names are com- 
mon nouns.* 

if. — Have we any other kind of nouns ? 



* Let your pupils tell the proper names of all their schoolmates, of their friends 
and reighbors, of the places they have seen or read of; towns, counties, states, etc. 
Then let them tell the common names of things around them, in the school-house 
or the neighborhood. Drill them thoroughly in speaking or writing each kind of 
nouns till they can readily distinguish them. 



82.' ENGLISH QllAMMAR. 

Mr. S. — We have collective, abstract, and verbal nouns. 
But they are generally considered species of common nouns. 
To these may be added sentential nouns, commonly called 
substantive phrase or clauses. 

A collective noun is the name of an assemblage of per- 
sons or things ; as, people, nation, multitude, crotod, flock, 
herd, szvarm, ainny, navy, fleet. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality separately 
considered ; as, darkness, hriglitness, hrilliancy, transparency, 
idleness, indolence, solidity, elasticity. 

A verbal noun is an infinitive or participle used as a 
noun ; as, " To obey is better than sacrifice." " Love is the 
fiilfllling of the law." 

A sentential noun is a phrase or clause performing the 
office of a noun ; as, " I ask no reward for doing my dutyP 
"■ To see the sun is pleasant." " That the icliole is equal to all 
its parts is self-evident." 

Letters, figures, words, and signs, spoken of as things 
and used as subjects of verbs or object of verbs or preposi- 
tions, are considered common nouns by good grammarians ; 
as, " C has the sound of s before e, i, or y, Ch has the 
sound of tsh ; as in church. Dot your Vs and cross your fs. 
How many 5 '5 are there in ^7? Is ^ a prime number? 
Is she a pronoun ? Is 0/ a preposition ? Is hozv an adverb ? 
Is and a connective ? Is + the sign of addition ? Answer 
me without an if or hut." 

" In vain the sage, witli retrospective eye, 
Would from the apparent ichat conclude the uhy." 

When a proper name is applied to several individuals 
resembling one another, or considered as a class, it becomes 
a common noun ; as, " There have been ShaJcspeares, and 
Miltons, and Ossians, and Homers." "He is the Cicero 
of America." "A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a 
Daniel I " 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

' ' Some village Hampden that, with dauntless breast, 
The little tyrant of his fields withstood ; 
Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest ; 
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." 

A common noun is sometimes used as a proper noun by 
personification ; as, " Laziness travels slowly : Poverty soon 
overtakes him." 

** Returning Justice lifts aloft her scale." 

** Mirth may not trespass on the place , 

Where silent Sadness reigns ; 
Nor rudely laugh in Sorrow's face, 
Nor smile where Orief complains." 



DIFFERENT SORTS OF PRONOUNS. 

Mr. 8. — The person speaking uses / instead of his own 
name, and thou (or you) for the name of the person spoken 
to, and he^ she, or it, for the name of the person or thing 
spoken of. These pronouns, with their plurals, ^ue, ye or you, 
and they, are called personal pronouns ; because they desig- 
nate the three persons in grammar : the first, the second, 
and the third ; distinguishing the speaker, the person spoken 
to, and the person spoken of. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form designates 
its person. 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, itself, ourseh-es, yourselves, and themselves. 

/. — What is that in this sentence : "I have lost the books 
that you gave me ? " 

Mr. S. — That stands for dooJcs, and connects "you gave 
me" to "I have lost the books." It is, therefore, properly 
called a connective pronoun. 

A connective pronoun is a pronoun that connects dif- 
ferent parts of a sentence. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The connective pronouns are, lulw, tohich, that, what, as, 
ivhoever, tuhoso, whosoever, lohatever, tvhatsoever, lohichever, 
and luhichsoever. 

When the pronoun who, which, or luhat, is used to ask a 
question, it is properly called an interrogative pronoun ; as, 
" Who is this ? What is that ? Which do you prefer ? 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to 
ask a question. 

R. — There are several words in very common use called 
adjective pronouns by some grammarians, and pronominal 
adjectives by others ; because they are sometimes used as 
pronouns, and sometimcj as adjectives. Which shall we 
call them ? 

Mr. S. — When such words are used as pronouns call 
them pronouns, and adjectives when they are used as ad- 
jectives. 

E. — How shall we classify such words as some gramma- 
rians call distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite adjec- 
tive pronouns ? 

Mr. /9.— Call them distributive, demonstrative, and in- 
definite pronouns, when they stand for nouns; as, "John 
and Charles worked yesterday for Mr. Gray; and each re- 
ceived a dollar." " Whose books are these 9 This is mine, 
and that is yours." " Some are taken, and others left." 

A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that represents each 
individual of a number taken separately. 

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that precisely 
points out what it represents. 

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun used indefinitely. 

The distributives are each, either, and neither. 

This, that, these, those, loth, same, such, former and lat- 
ter, are often used as demonstrative pronouns. 

The words most commonly used as indefinite pronouns 
are some, other, another, any, one, none, all, many, feio, and 
several; as, ^^ Soine oxe happy while others are miserable." 



ETYMOLOGY, 85 

" Teach me to feel another's woe." " Neither is there any 
that can dehver." " One ought to know one's own mind." 
^''All have sinned." "There is none that doeth good." 
^^ Many are called, bnt fe^o are chosen." '^ Several of 
our friends were there." 

" Art tliou too fallen ? Do we see 
Thy mighty ones as low as we ? " 

M, — Are other pronouns ever used indefinitely ? 

Mr, S. — Personal pronouns are occasionally used with- 
out definite antecedents, and connective pronouns very often; 
so are distributive pronouns. But even then each of them 
retains its peculiar characteristic, and designates the person 
of the pronoun, connects, or distributes; as, "Blessed are 
they that mourn." " Ye that listen with credulity to the 
whisperings of fancy." " Can you tell me ivho it is ? " "I 
do not care who knows it." " How I wonder tvhat you are !" 
" Consider luhat is said, rather than ivho says it." " Let each 
esteem others better than himself" 

" And there tJiey say a wizzard's orgie crowds. 
When the moon lights her watch-tower in the clouds." 



GENDER. 

Every animal is either male or female ; and inanimate 
things are neither. To distinguish males and females and 
things without sex, nouns and pronouns have that kind of 
variations which grammarians call gender. 

Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in regard 
to sex. 

We generally say there are three genders ; the masculine, 
the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex. 

The feminine gender denotes the female sex. 



86 EHGLI 3 H GRAMMAR. 

The neuter gender denotes neither sex. 

As there are but two sexes, and as the Latin word neuter 
signifies neither, strictly speaking, there are but two gen- 
ders. If we substitute the English word for the Latin, and 
say neitlier gender instead of neuter gender, we shall not 
be misled by using a negative term in a positive sense. 

The names of males and the pronouns standing for them 
are in the masculine gender ; the names of females and the 
pronouns standing for tliem are in the feminine gender; 
and the names of things that are neither male nor female, 
when used literally, and the pronouns standing for them, 
are in neither gender. Such nouns as parent, child, friend, 
neighhor, teacher, pupil, least, Mrd, and insect, are in either 
gender; and they may be in both genders in the plural 
number, when they are so used as to include both males 
and females. Mention some nouns in each gender. 

H. — Boy, hr other, poet, horse, and lion, are in the mascu- 
line gender; girl, sister, poetess, mare, and lioness, are in the 
feminine gender ; and tree, book, and poem, are in neither 
gender. 

Mr. 6'.— Tell me the genders of the pronouns, he, she, 
and it. 

W. — He is in the masculine gender, she is in the femin- 
ine, and it is in neither gender. 

Mr. S. — Have we any other pronouns that are varied on 
account of gender ? 

E. — We have none that are varied in form. But all of 
them are varied in sense ; for every pronoun represents the 
noun it stands for in gender, as well as in number, and of 
course must be in the same gender that its antecedent is. 

Mr. S. — In our language there are three different ways 
of distinguishing the sexes. 

1. By Different Words: as, 

Bachelor, maid ; beau, belle ; boy, girl ; brother, sister ; buck, doe ; 
bull or ox^ cow ; bullock or steer, heifer ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

earl, countess ; father, mother ; friar or monk, nun ; gander, gcose ; 
hart, roe ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen ; lad, lass ; lord, 
lady ; man, woman ; master, mistress ; milter, spawner ; nephew, 
niece ; ram, ewe ; sir, madam ; sloven, slut ; son, daughter ; stag, 
hind ; swain, nymph ; uncle, aunt ; wizard, witch. 

2. By Different Endings : as, 

Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; administrator, administratrix ; 
adulterer, adulteress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; arbiter, arbitress ; 
author, authoress ; baron, baroness ; benefactor, benefactress ; bride- 
groom, bride ; count, countess ; czar, czarina ; deacon, dekconess ; 
duke, duchess ; elector, electress ; emperor, empress; enchanter, en- 
chantress ; executor, executrix ; giant, giantess ; god, goddess ; gov- 
ernor, governess ; heir, heiress ; hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress ; 
host, hostess ; Jew, Jewess ; landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness ; 
marquis, marchioness ; Mister, Mistress ; monitor, monitress ; negro, 
negress ; patron, patroness ; peer, peeress ; poet, poetess ; priest, 
priestess ; prince, princess ; prior, prioress ; prophet, prophetess ; pro- 
tector, protectress ; shepherd, shepherdess ; songster, songstress ; sor- 
cerer, sorceress ; sultan, sultaness, or sultana ; tailor, tailoress ; testa- 
tor, testatrix ; tiger, tigress ; traitor, traitress ; tutor, tutoress; viscount, 
viscountess ; votary, votaress ; widower, widow. 

3. By Pkefixing other Words: as, 

Man-servant, maid-servant ; male teachers, female teachers ; he- 
bears, she-bears ; cock-sparrows, hen-sparrows. 

Mr. S. — As I speak some nouns in the masculine gender, 
tell me the corresponding terms in the feminine gender. 

Gentlemen, hero, king, governor, executor, don. 

F. — Lady, heroine, queen, governess, executrix, donna.* 

Reader, speaker, writer, scholar, grammarian. 

F. — These nouns have the same form in each gender. 

Sailor, pirate, captain, general, admiral, esquire. 

E. — For these nouns we have no corresponding terms in 
the feminine gender. 

Prude, shrew, termagant, virago, amazon, laundress. 

* Drill your pupils in such exercises till they can speak and write our nouns 
correctly in ech gender. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

/. — For these nouns we have no corresponding terms in 
the masculine gender. 

Mr. S, — None but the names of persons and animals are 
ever in the masculine or feminine gender, when used liter- 
ally. But to enliven and beautify discourse, we frequently 
ascribe life and action to inanimate things or abstract ideas; 
representing them as males or females, on account of some 
fancied resemblance. Then their names are figuratively 
masculine or feminine; as, " Grim-visaged War hath 
smoothed Jiis wrinkled front." 

" Fair Science frowned not on his liumble birth. 
And Melancholy marked him for her own." 

On the other hand, the names of animals whose sex is 
unknown or disregarded, are often used as neuter ; as, " The 
toad must not spit its venom among turtle-doves." "Naomi 
took the child, and laid it in her bosom." 

*' In ancient times, as we are told, 
A peasant found a serpent stiff and cold. 
He took it home, and warmed it into life ; 
And then it bit his children and his wife," 



NUMBER. 

Mr. S. — Speak or write some nouns so as to express but 
one person or thing with each noun. 

M. — Boy, girl, child, knife, box, peach. 

Mr. S. — Now speak or write these nouns so as to express 
more than one with each of them. 

P. — Boys, girls, children, knives, boxes, peaches. 

Mr. S. — Compare these nouns, and see how they are 
varied, and wherein they differ. This kind of variation we 
call number. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

Number is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in 
regard to unity and plurality. 

There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 

The singular number denotes but one. 

The plural number denotes more than one. 

Write these nouns in the plural number : 

Pen, glass, bench, bush, fox, hero. 

H. — Pens, glasses, benches, bushes, foxes, heroes. 

Mr. 8. — What is added to these nouns to ma]ie them 
plural ? 

D. — To pen s is added, and es to all the others. Is the 
plural number always formed by adding s or es to the sin- 
gular ? 

Mr. S. — Generally, but not always. This is the regular 
formation of the plural. Nouns that form it otherwise are 
said to be irregular, because they deviate from the usual 
method. Here are some examples : 

Man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; 
foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; louse, lice ; mouse, 
mice ; die, dice ; penny, pence. Dies and pennies mean the 
stamps and coins. 

Nouns from foreign languages generally retain their original 
plural, if they are not fully anglicized : as, Analysis, analyses ; an- 
tithesis, antitheses ; apex, apexes or apices ; aphis, aphides; appendix, 
appendixes or appendices ; arcanum, arcana ; automaton, automata ; 
axis, axes ; bandit, banditti ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux ; calx, calxes 
or calces ; cherub, cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; criterion, cri- 
teria ; datum, data ; desideratum, desiderata ; effluvium, effluvia ; 
ellipsis, ellipses ; encomium, encumiums or encomia ; emphasis, em- 
phases ; erratum, errata ; focus, focuses or foci ; formula, formulae 
or formulas : genius, genii ; genas, genera ; hypophesis, hypopheses; 
index, indexes or indices ; lamina, laminae ; madame, mesdames ; 
medium, media or mediums ; memorandum, memorandums or memo- 
randa ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses ; minutia, minutiae ; mon- 
sieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae , phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, 
radiuses or radii ; seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stamen, stamina ; 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

stimulus, stimuli ; stratum, strr.ta ; vertex, vortexes or vertices ; vor- 
tex, vortexes or vortices ; virtuoso, virtuosos or virtuosi. 

Many of thess words are now becoming anglicized among 
good writers. Some of them assume the regular English 
plural. This should be encouraged. Our adopted words 
should, like adopted citizens, be naturalized and quietly 
submit to all our laws and customs. If they are descended 
from patrician families, they should not put on airs, but be 
on speaking terms with common English words : hereditary 
titles of nobility should not be allowed in our great republic 
of letters. 

Change the number of the nouns that I speak or write. 

Tully, lady, valley, fly, leaf, life, loaf, fife, calf, shelf, 
wolf, thief, cuff, staff. 

G. — Tullys, ladies, valleys, flies, leaves, lives, loaves, fifes, 
calves, shelves, wolves, thieves, cuffs, staves.* 

Handful, pailful, aid-de-camp, son-in-law, man-servant, 
bondman, Mussulman, alumnus, ellipsis. 

D. — Handfuls, pailfuls, aids-de-camp, sons-in-law, man- 
servants, bondmen, Mussulmans, alumni, ellipses. 

Hay, wheat, pride, anger, fame, greatness, solidity, cold- 
ness, darkness, temperance, idleness, indolence. 

R. — Such nouns as these have no plural. 

Ashes, embers, annals, archives, riches, literati, vespers, 
ides, alms, tidings, scissors, snuffers, shears, tongs. 

E. — These nouns have no singular. 

Deer, sheep, swine, bass, shad, series, species, apparatus, 
bellows, odds, means, amends. 

P.— These nouns have the same form in both numbers. 

News, politics, ethics, metaphysics, mathematics. 

J".— These nouns are not varied on account of number. 
They are now considered singular in sense, though plural 
in form.t 

* Drill your grammar class in writing nouns till they can write them all cor- 
rectly in both numbers. 

t See note under Mathematics in "Webster's Dictionary. 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

R. — When a proper name is applied to several individ- 
uals and has a common name placed before it to express an 
office or a title, which noun should be made plural ? 

Mr. 8. — We have the best authority for making the 
proper noun plural in such cases ; as, " England has had 
her King Richards, her King Henrys, and King Georges ; 
but she has had no General Wasliingtons." " May there 
not be 8ir Isaac Neivtons in every science ?" 

E. — We sometimes hear such expressions as " Tbe three 
Misses White" and " The two Di^s. Brown." 

Mr S. — This is a modern innovation showing much 
more affectation than good taste and jndgment. General 
usage is against it. Can such an expression be found in 
any of the English classics ? 

D. — How shall we write a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, etc. ; 1, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, in the plnral number ? 

Mr. S. — Write them thus : a's, b's, c's, d's, e's, f s, g's, 
h's, i's, etc.'s ; I's, 2's, 3's, 4's, 5's, 6's, 7% S% and 9's. 



PERSON. 

In every discourse there must be a person speaking, and 
somebody spoken to, and something spoken of. Hence 
arises that distinction of nouns and pronouns which gram- 
marians call person. 

Person is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in regard 
to the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or 
thing spoken of. 

There are three persons : the first, the second, and the 
third. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person spoken to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 



9SI ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Select the nouns and pronouns in these sentences, and 
tell what person each of them is in. 

Emma, give me that book. 

M. — Emma is in the second person, because it denotes 
the person spoken to ; me is in the first person, because it 
denotes the speaker ; and hooh is in the third person, be- 
cause it denotes the thing spoken of. 

King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets ? I know 
that thou believest. 

R. — Ki7ig Agrippa and tJioii are in the second person, 
because they denote the person spoken to ; prophets is in the 
third person, because it denotes the persons spoken of ; and 
/ is in the first person, because it denotes the speaker. 

Men and brethren, I have liyed in all good conscience 
before God until this day. 

Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Thou art permitted to 
speak for thyself. Then Paul stretched forth the hand and 
answered for himself : I think myself happy, King Agrippa, 
because I shall answer for myself this day before thee touch- 
ing all the things whereof I am accused of the Jews.* 

Dear Lord ! and shall we ever live 

At this poor dying rate ? 
Our love so faint, so cold to thee. 

And tliine to us so great ? 

Come, Holy Spirit, heavenly Dove 

With all thy quickening powers ; 
Come shed abroad a Saviour's love, 

And that shall kindle ours. 

H. — Is the name of the speaker in the first person ? 

Mr. 8. — No: the speaker seldom uses his own name; 
and when he does, he generally uses it in the third person, 
and sometimes in the second. King Richard says of him- 

* Read the rest of this chapter, and tell the pereon of every noun and pronoun. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

self, " Richard loves Richard ; " and Seged says to himself, 
"Why, Seged, dost thou not partake of the blessings which 
thou bestowest ? " 

N. — Is the name of the person spoken to always in the 
second person ? 

3l7\ S. — Generally, but not always. There is a sort of 
delicate, indirect mode of address that puts it in the third 
person, also appellatives applied to the person spoken to ; 
as, *• Will Emma give me that book ?" " Let not t^ae king 
say so." "Will the Lord be angry for ever?" "Shall not 
the judge of all the earth do right ? " Sometimes appella- 
tives apphed to the speaker, as well as the person addressed, 
are in the third person ; as, " Let thy servant, I pray thee, 
speak a word in my lord^s ears." " Pity the sorrows of a 
poor old ma7i" Observe how lady is addressed directly in 
the first line of this stanza, and indirectly in the last : 

O, lady fair, those silks of mine 

Are beautiful and rare, 
The richest web of the Indian loom. 
Which beauty's self might wear ; 
And those pearls are pure as thine own fair neck. 
With whose radiant light they vie : 
I have brought them with me a weary way — 
Will my gentle lady buy ? 

W. — Are nouns ever in the first person ? 

3fr. S. — No : the person speaking uses the pronoun / to 
represent himself as the speaker, and tve to represent him- 
self and others associated with him. These words are 
always in the first person; thou, ye, and yoii, in the second; 
and he, she, it, and they, in the third. 

/. — When nouns are in apposition or predication with / 
or we, are they not in the first person ? 

Mr. S. — I think not. But on this point grammarians 
disagree. Though nouns and pronouns in apposition or 
predication must be in the same case, they may be in difier- 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eut persons ; as, " / the Lord have spoken it." " / am Jo- 
seph:' ''It is / myself." "/ am he." "They have for- 
saken me, the fountain of living waters." 

" But we, their sons, a pampered race of men, 
Are dwindled down to three-score years and ten." 



** Liberty / the prisoner's pleasing dream, 
The poet's muse, his passion, and his theme ; 
Genius is thine, and thou art Fancy's nurse ; 
Lost without thee the ennobling powers of verse." 

" O happiness ! our being's end and aim I 
Good, pleasure, ease, content, whate'er thy name ; 
That something still which prompts the eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die." 

J. — Do not pronouns agree with their antecedents in 
gender, number, and person ? 

Mr. iS'.— Pronouns necessarily depend on their ante- 
cedents for their gender and number, as they have no 
definite signification of their own, but represent whatever is 
expressed by the nouns for which they stand. But they do 
not derive their person from their antecedents ; for, in its 
technical sense, it is no natural attribute of any thing what- 
ever, but depends entirely on the accidental circumstance of 
one's speaking, being spoken to, or spoken of. What are 
the antecedents of tliou and me in this sentence ? " Then 
Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a 
Christian." 

/. — Paul is the antecedent of thou, and Agrippa the an- 
tecedent of me. 

Mr. S. — Do they agree in person ? Are not Agrippa 
and Paul both in the third person, while me is in the first, 
and thoit in the second ? 

R. — Is person really a variation of nouns and pronouns ? 

3fr. S. — Yes: it is a variation in their application, not in 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

their form. Nouns and some of our pronouns, though not 
varied in form on account of person, are varied in their 
apphcation; being yariously applied so as to be in different 
persons. But some pronouns are always in the same person. 
Each of the personal pronouns designates one of the three 
persons and no others : / and tve are always in the first per- 
son ; thou, ye, and you, in the second ; and he, she, it, and 
they, in the third. There are several other pronouns that 
are always in the third person. ^ 



CASE. 

In speaking and writing we vary the form of pronouns 
to express the subjects and the objects of our thoughts, and 
frequently change the position of our nouns and pronouns 
in the sentence; as, "Charles kicked the horse, and the 
horse kicked him." "I knocked off Henry's hat; then he 
struck me, and I struck him." See how these pronouns, 
as we use them to express the subject and the object of a 
thought, are varied in form, and how the nouns and pro- 
nouns are varied in position to show their constraction in 
these sentences. Such variations of our nouns and pro- 
nouns we call case. 

Case is a distinction of nouns and pronouns in regard to 
their construction in sentences. 

Our nouns and pronouns have but three cases; the 
nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

The nominative case simply denotes the name of a per- 
son or thing, or the subject of a thought. 

The possessive case denotes possession or ownership. 

The objective case denotes the object of a thought or of 
a relation. 

In every sentence the verb is the key to its construction. 
Find the verb, and you can easily ascertain the cases. In- 



0^ ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 

quire with luJio or luliat before it, and the answer will be in 
the nominative case. Inquire with lohom or ivliat after it or 
after a preposition, and the answer will be in the objective 
case. Inquire with ^vhose before a noun, and you will find 
the possessive case. Try this sentence t " I drove Albert's 
horse before my carriage." 

P.— Here drove is the verb. Who drove ? I. Then / 
is in the nominative case, the subject of drove. I drove 
what? Horse. Then Jiorse is in the objective case, the 
object of drove* Whose horse ? Albert's. Then Albert's 
is in the possessive case. Before what ? Carriage. Whose 
carriage ? Mt/ carriage. Then carriage is in the objective 
case, the object oi before; and 7112/ is in the possessive case. 

Select the nouns and pronouns in these sentences, and 
tell what case each of them is in. 

If we deny him, he also will deny us.f 

If you neglect your friends, they will neglect you. 

When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves 
that we have forsaken them. 

Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it 
shines. 

Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

I opened not my mouth, because thou didst it. 

In my father's house are many mansions. 

Ye shaU know the truth ; and the truth shall make you 
free. 

If you do not overcome bad habits, they will overcome 
you. 

When we shut the gate of mercy on others, we shut it on 
ourselves. 

Time conquers all, and we must time obey. 



* Predicate nouns and pronouns are exceptions; they are generally in the nom- 
inative case after verbs, because they refer to the same persons or things that the 
subjects do ; as, " Thou art the ma?i." " Is it I? " 

t Drill your pupils in such exercises till they can distinguish all the casea. 



ETYMOLOGY. 97 

When science from Creation's face 

Enchantment's veil withdraws. 
What lovely visions yield their place 

To cold material laws ! 

Thy love the power of thought bestowed: 

To thee my thoughts would soar. 
Thy mercy o'er my life has flowed : 

That mercy I adore. 

A Grecian youth of talents rare, \ 

Whom Plato's philosophic care 

Had formed for virtue's nobler view. 

By precept and example too, 

Would often boast his matchless skill 

To curb the steed and guide the wheel. 

Nouns and pronouns have four kinds of variations; 
gender, numberj person, and case. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is a regular pre- 
sentation of all its variations in number and case. 

Nouns are thus declined : 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Nom, Child, Children, Nom. Boy, Boys, 

Poss. Child's, Children's, Poss. Boy's, Boys', 

Ohj. Child; Children. Obj. Boy; Boys. 

If you examine this declension, you will see that nouns 
have no variations in form on account of case except in the 
possessive, which is marked with an apostrophe and s. But 
in the plural number, when it ends in s, the apostrophic s 
is omitted. 



The personal pronouns are thus declined 




T^. , .,, r N'om. I, Nom. We, 

geS" ' ' P'^f- My> Poss. Our, 



Plur. 

WB; 

Oui 
Ohj. Us. 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 




Second person either 
gender. 



Third person masculine 
gender, 



Third person feminine 
gender, 



Third person neither 
gender. 



When you have committed this declension thoroughly 
to memory, you will know the numher, person, and case of 
every personal pronoun by its form, and also the gender of 
the third person singular. 

/. — There are three exceptions, Mr. Smith : her has the 
same form in the possessive and the objective case ; and you 
and it, the same in the nominative and the objective. 

Mr. S. — Can you decline the compound personal pro- 
nouns ? 

R, — They have no possessive case, and are not varied in 
form in either of the other cases. They are therefore inde- 
clinable. 

Mr. 8. — Decline tolio and which. 

M. — They have the same form in both numbers. 

Nom. Who, Nom. Which, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Olj. Whom. Ohj. Which. 

Mr. S. — WJioever and luhosoever are declined like who. 
Can any of you decline one and other 9 
D. — They are declined like nouns. 



ETYMOLOar. 09 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. One, Ones, Nom. Other, Others, 

Poss. One'si Ones^ Poss. Other's, Others', 

Obj. One; Ones. Obj. Other; Others. 

Mr. 8. — This and that are varied in number, but not in 
case : these is the plural of this., and those the plural of that. 
Former and latter have the same form in both numbers, but 
are varied in case like singular nouns. All the other pro- 
nouns are indeclinable. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

E. — How many kinds of adjectives are there ? 

Mr. 8. — Different grammarians classify them very dif- 
ferently ; some making half a dozen classes ; and some, a 
dozen. I desire to teach you what is useful, rather than to 
puzzle you with nice distinctions. To avoid perplexity, we 
will divide them into three classes ; proper, common, and 
compound. 

A proper adjective is one that is derived from a proper 
noun ; as, Italian, 8panish, Platonic, Lutheran. 

A common adjective is a simple adjective not derived 
from a proper noun, with a common signification established 
by general use ; as, good, siveet, foreign, different, several, 
one, tiuo, three, any, some, a, an, the, this. 

A compound adjective is one that is composed of two or 
more words united by a hyphen ; as, tender-hearted, all-suh- 
duing, holloio-eyed, good-for-nothing. 

Common adjectives may be subdivided into nine differ- 
ent classes : numeral ; as, one, tivo, three ; first, second, 
third ; siiigle or alone, douUe or twofold, tri;ple or threefold : 
descriptive ; as, rude, gentle, tall, brave, white, straight, round, 
triangular : definitive ; as, the, this, that, yon, yonder : in- 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

definite ; as, a, an, any, some, other : distributive ; as, earJi, 
every, either, neither : intensive ; as, own, even, very : par- 
ticipial ; as, S7niling faces, Irohen hearts : interrogative ; as, 
" What book is that ? Which book is yours ? " and con- 
nective ; as, " I do not care which book you lake. It is im- 
material what names we call them." But this classification 
is more curious than useful. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

W. — How many sorts of adverbs have we ? 

Mr. S. — Some grammarians divide and subdivide them 
into fifteen or twenty different classes. But these nice dis- 
tinctions are of little use in analyzing and correcting sen- 
tences. They perplex and puzzle more than they instruct. 
The following classification is, perhaps, as good as any: 
Adverbs of manner; as, hindly, gently, slowly, siDiftly,fast, 
well, ill. Of time ; as, noiu, to-day, lately, yesterday, here- 
after, to-morrow, daily, lueehly, often, sometimes, agai7i, once, 
tiuice, late, early, then, when. Of place; as, here, there, 
where, hither, thither, ivhither, hence, thence, whence, above, 
beloiv, up, doivn, bachivard, forioard. Of degree ; as, much, 
little, sufficiently, enough, abundantly. Of afiirmation ; as, 
yes, yea, verily, truly, certainly. Of negation ; as, nay, no, 
not. Of doubt; as, perhaps, perchance, possibly, perad- 
venture. 



COMPARISON. 

Comparison is a variation of an adjective or adverb to 
express its signification in different degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

The positive degree simply expresses a quality or attri- 
bute ; the comparative expresses it in a higher or lower 
degree ; and the superlative expresses it in the highest or 
lowest degree. 

Select the adjectives and adverbs in these sentences, and 
tell what degree each of them is in. 

Here is a sour apple ; that is sourer ; and this is the 
sourest apple that I ever tasted. James reads too fast; 
Charles reads faster than James ; and Henry reads the fast- 
est of the three. 

Ji, — Sotir is in the positive degree ; sourer is in the com- 
parative ; and sourest is in the superlative. 

G. — Fast is in the positive degree ; faster is in the com- 
parative ; and fastest is in the superlative. 

3Ir. S. — Take notice of these words, and see how they 
are compared. 

F. — They are compared by adding er and est to the 
positive. 

Mr. S. — When the positive ends in e nothing but r and 
si is added ; as, noMe, nobler, noUest. 

Adjectives and adverbs are regularly compared by adding 
r or er, and st or est, to the positive. 

When this would make the pronunciation disagreeable to 
the ear, we use more and most before the adjective or adverb; 
varying it in sense, but not in form ; as, beautiful, more 
beautiful, most beautiful ; beaiiti fully, more beautifully, most 
beautifully. To express diminution we use less and least; 
as, less beautiful, least beautiful. 

In such expressions the degrees of comparison grammat- 
ically belong to the adverbs more and most, less and least ; 
and should be applied to them in parsing, not to the words 
whose meaning they modify. The suffix isli is often used 
to diminish the signification of the adjective below the posi- 
tive ; as, greenish (somewhat green) : and rather placed be- 
fore the adjective has about the same effect ; as, rather green. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We have some words in common use that are irregularly 
compared. Will you give a few examples ? 

^.— Good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; well, better, 
best; ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; many, more, most; 
much, more, most; far, farther, farthest, farmost or fartlier- 
most; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former, foremost; 
late, later or latter, latest or last ; in, inner, inmost or inner- 
most; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest; out, outer or ut- 
ter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost ; up, upper, 
upmost or uppermost. 

J' — Are there only three degrees of variation in the sig- 
nification of adjectives and adverbs ? 

Mr. S. — We can vary their signification infinitely, or at 
least, indefinitely, by using adverbs or adverbial phrases 
before them ; as, " He is very rich, immensely rich." " The 
evening star is a very splendid object, but the sun is incom- 
parably more splendid." " Solomon was mucJi wiser than 
his son." " It is intensely cold. It is fifty degrees colder 
than it was yesterday." " God is infinitely greater than the 
greatest of his creatures." 

In quantities that can be exactly measured, the degree 
of excess can be exactly expressed. But in regard to quali- 
ties, and those quantities which cannot be measured exactly, 
it is impossible to tell how many degrees may be comiDre- 
hended in the comparative excess ; for human language can- 
not be more accurate than human knowledge. 



EXEaCISE IK PARSING. 103 



COJSTYEIlSATIOlSr lY. 

INDUCTIVE EXERCISES IN PARSING, AND A FEW REMARKS ON 
DERIVATION. 

]\£r, s, — ]^ow let me see bow well you understand what 
I have told you about the parts of speech. You that have 
just begun to study grammar, sit right here in front; and 
answer all the questions, if you can. Let all the rest be 
critics, and correct our errors. Watch us closely, every one 
of you. Let no mistake escape your notice. If any of out 
exercises are not clearly understood, don't be afraid to ask 
for information.* 

What kind of nouns are Peter, Mary, and Jerusalem ? 

H. — They are proper nouns, because they are proper 
names, applied to individuals to distinguish them from 
others : Peter is the name of an individual man, Mary is 
the name of an individual woman, and Jerusalem is the 
name of an individual city. 

Mr. S, — Are man, ivoman and city proper nouns? 

G. — They are common nouns, because they are not the 
names of individuals, but common names: each of them is 
the name of a species, or class. • 

Mr. 8. — In what gender are these nouns? 

T. — Man is in the masculine gender, because it denotes 
the male sex : it is the name of a male. So is Peter. 

Woman is in the feminine gender, because it denotes the 
female sex : it is the name of a female. So is Mary. 

Jerusalem is in neither gender, because it denotes neither 
sex : it is the name of a city, which is neither male nor 
female. 



* Let your pupils study these exercises as models for pareing, after driUiiig 
them thoroughly in the manner here presented. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mr. S. — Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and 
pronouns in these sentences, and tell which gender each of 
them is in. 

See John and Ida in the garden with their cousins. 

i\r. — John is a proper noun, in tlie masculine gender ; Ida is a 
proper noun, in the feminine gender ; garden is a common noun, iu 
neither gender ; their is a personal pronoun standing for John and Ida, 
in both genders ; and cousins is a common noun, in either gender. 

Train up a child in the way he should go. 

D. — Child is a common noun, in the masculine gender ; wai/ is a 
common noun, in neither gender ; and lie is a personal pronoun stand- 
ing for child, in the masculine gender. 

The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard 
shall lie down with the kid ; and the calf and the young 
lion and the fatling together ; and a little child shall lead 
them. The cow and the bear shall feed ; their young ones 
shall lie down together : and the lion shall eat straw like 
the ox. 

J. — Is not cJiild in the common gender ? 

Mr. S. — Strictly speaking, there is no such gender in 
our language. Such nouns as cJiild, and most of our pro- 
nouns, should be parsed according to their application in the 
sentence we are parsing. When they are applied to males, 
say, tliey are in the masculine gender, and in the feminine 
gender when they are applied to females. When the gender 
is undetermined, say, they are in either gender, or in the 
masculine or feminine. When they are so used as to include 
both males and females, say, they are in both genders, or in 
the masculine cmcl feminine. 

E. — Is it proper to say neither gender instead of neuter 
gender ? 

3fr. S. — The Latin word neuter signifies neither in plain 
English. As both these words have the same meaning, you 
may use whichever you prefer. In teaching children, I pre- 
fer plain English words that all of them can understand. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 105 

Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and pronouns 
in these sentences, and tell which gender and number each 
of them is in. 

Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their 
lives, and in their death they were not divided. 

H. — Saul and Jonathan are proper nouns, in the mascviline gender 
and singular number ; their is a personal pronoun standing for Saul 
and Jonathan, in the masculine gender and plural number ; lives is a 
common noun, in neither gender and the plural number ; and death 
is a common noun in neither gender and the singular number. 

I am not mad, most noble Festus ; but speak forth the 
words of truth and soberness. 

G. — /is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; Festus is a proper noun, in the masculine gender and singu- 
lar number ; words is a common noun, in neither gender and the 
plural number ; truth and soberness are common nouns, in neither 
gender and the singular number. 

In all the land were no women found so fair as the 
daughters of Job : and their father gave them inheritance 
among their brethren.* 

The lambs with wolves shall graze the verdant mead, 
And boys in flowery bands the tiger lead ; 
The steer and lion at one crib shall meet. 
And harmless serpents lick the pilgrim's feet. 

B. — Why is / in the masculine gender ? 

3fr. S. — I is in the masculine gender, because Paitlf the 
noun for which it stands, is in the masculine gender : a pro- 
noun must be in the same gender and number that its ante- 
cedent is. In what person is I ? 

iV. — / is in the first person, because it denotes the 
speaker. 

* Let your pupils follow the example here presented in selecting nouns and 
pronouns in these sentences, and gradually advance from one variation to another, 
till they understand them thoroughly. By doing so you will prevent confusion, as 
you lead them gradually into parsing. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mr. S. — In what person is Festus 9 

H. — Festus is in the second person, because it denotes 
the person spoken to. Words is in the third person, because 
it denotes the things spoken of; and so are truth and 
soberness. 

Mr. S. — Distinguish the different sorts of nouns and 
pronouns in what I read, and tell which gender, number, 
and person each of them is in. 

Naomi said, Turn again, my daughters : why will ye go 
with me ? 

I). — Naomi is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, and third person ; my is a personal pronoun standing for 
Naomi, in the feminine gender, singular number, and first person ; 
daughters is a common noun, in the feminine gender, plural number, 
and second person ; 2/« is a personal pronoun standing for daughters, 
in the feminine gender, plural number, and second person ; and me 
is a personal pronoun standing for Naomi, in the feminine gender, 
singular number, and first person. 

Who is this that cometh from Edom ? 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, in the masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, and third person ; this is a demonstrative pronoun, in 
the masculine gender, singular number, and third person ; that is a 
connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular number, and 
third person ; and Edom is a proper noun, in neither gender, singular 
number, and third person. 

Daniel, servant of the living God, is thy God, whom 
thou servest continually, able to deliver thee from the 
lions ? 

My God hath sent his angel, and hath shut the lions' 
mouths, that they have not hurt me : forasmuch as before 
him innocency was found in me, and also before thee, 
king, have I done no hurt. 

Mr. S. — Do any of you remember what I said you must 
do to find out all the cases of the nouns and pronouns in a 
sentence ? 

M. — I remember very well. You told us to find the 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 107 

verbs and prepositions ; then to ask a question with who or 
what before a verb to find the nominative, and with tuhom 
or ivhat after a verb or preposition to find the objective, and 
with luhose before a noun to find the possessive. 

Mr. S. — Tell me all the cases of the nouns and pronouns 
in these sentences : 

Nature's children all divide her care. 

^.— Who divide ? Children. Whose children ? Na- 
ture's. Children is in the nominative case : and natures, 
in the possessive. Divide Avhat ? Care. Whose care ? Her 
care. Her is in the possessive case ; and care, in the ob- 
jective. 

Mr. S. — Why is children in the nominative case ? 

H. — Because it is the subject of divide. 

Mr. S. — Why is care in the objective case ? 

H. — Because it is the object of divide. 

Mr. 8. — Why are nature^ and her in the possessive case ? 

H. — Because they denote the possession or ownership of 
children and care.* 

Mr. 8. — To ascertain the cases ask and answer all thesa 
questions mentally; then tell the subject of each verb, its 
object (if it has one), and the object of each preposition. 

For me the mine a thousand treasures brings. 

Jf. — Me is the object of for ; mine is the subject of 
brings, and treasures is the object. 

A deep philosopher (whose rules 
Of moral life were drawn from schools) 
The shepherd's homely cottage sought, 
And thus explored his reach of thought : 



* Drill your pupils till they understand the cases thoroughly. Before they 
undertake to parse a sentence, make them tell the subject of every finite verb that 
it containe, and the object of every verb and preposition, and point out the pos- 
pesBives. This bird's-eye view will show them how the sentence is constructed, 
and illustrate all the cases. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

** Whence is thy learning ? has thy toil 

O'er books consumed the midnight oil ? 

Hast thou old Greece and Rome surveyed. 

And the vast sense of Plato weighed ? 

Has Socrates thy soul refined. 

And hast thou fathomed Tully's mind ? 

Or, like the wise Ulysses, thrown 

By various fates on realms unknown. 

Hast thou through many cities strayed. 

Their customs, laws, and manners weighed ? '* 

Mr. S. — Distinguish the different kinds of nouns and 
pronouns in these sentences, and tell which gender, number, 
person, and case, each of them is in. 

Jcseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him. 

iV. — Joseph is the subject of knew, and brethren is the object : 
they is the subject of knew, and him is the object. 

Joseph is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. 

His is a personal pronoun standing for Joseph, in the masculine 
gender, singular number, third person, and possessive case. 

Brethren is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number, third person, and objective case. 

Thei/ is a personal pronoun standing for brethren, in the mascu- 
line gender, plural number, third person, and nominative case. 

Him is a personal pronoun standing for Joseph, in the masculine 
gender, singular number, third person, and objective case, 

^om. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. JSfom. they, Poss. their, Obj. them. 

If you help others, they will help you. 

I). — Tou is the subject of help, and others is the object ; they is 
the subject of loill help, and you is the object. 

Tou is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, sec- 
ond person, and nominative case. 

Others is an indefinite pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case. 

They is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case. 

Tou is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, sec- 
ond person, and objective case. 



EXEECISE IN PARSIKG. 109 

Ida could not pay me ; so I forgave her the debt. 

G. — Ida is the subject of could pay, and me is tlie object ; / is tbe 
subject of forgave, and her is the indirect object, and debt the direct 
object. 

Ida is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, first 
person, and objective case. 

J is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, first 
person, and nominative case. ^ 

Her is a i^ersonal pronoun standing for Ida, in the feminine gen- 
der, singular number, third person, and objective case. 

Debt is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case. 

John's horse threw him and broke his arm while he was 
whipping him severely with a rawhide. If we abnse our 
horses, they will abuse us. Nature herself, in some degree, 
rewards us for what we do. If you till your land, it will 
supply you with food. If you neglect your gardens, they 
will yield you a crop of weeds. If we violate the laws of 
honor, health, and wealth, disgrace, disease, and poverty 
will soon overtake us. If we cultivate bad habits, they will 
make us miserable. 

Solomon, my son, know thou the God of thy father, and 
serve him with a perfect heart and with a willing mind ; for 
the Lord searcheth all hearts, and understandeth all the 
imaginations of the thoughts : if thou seek him, he will be 
found of thee ; but if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off 
for ever. 

When the proud steed shall know why man restrains 

His fiery course, or drives him o'er the plains ; 

When the dull ox why now he breaks the clod. 

Is now a victim, and now Egypt's god ; 

Then shall man's pride and dullness comprehend 

His actions', passions', being's use and end. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mr. S. — You have now learned to parse nouns and pro- 
nouns etymologically. 

G. — What ! have we been parsing all this time ? 

Mr. S. — Yes : you have learned to classify our nouns and 
pronouns, and to distinguish all their variations. This is 
etymological parsing. Derivation is a part of etymology to 
be applied in parsing derivatives, but not in parsing primi- 
tive words like the nouns and pronouns that you parsed just 
now. 

H. — Tell us how to parse adjectives and adverbs. 

Mr. 8. — In parsing such as are varied by comparison, 
tell whether they are in the positive, the comparative, or the 
superlative degree, and compare them. You may also men- 
tion the derivation of derivatives, and tell what prefixes and 
suffixes are used. Parse the adjectives and adverbs in these 
sentences : 

You I'ead too fast to be a good reader. 

B.—Too is an adverb of degree, not varied by comparison. 

Fast is an adverb of manner, in the positive degree. Pos. fast. 
Com. faster, Super, fastest. 

Good is a common adjective, in the positive degree. Pos. good. 
Com. better. Super, best. 

These goods are unsalable. 

M. — These is a common adjective, not varied by comparison. 
Unsalable is a common adjective, not varied in form by compari- 
son, derived from sale by adding the suffix able and the prefix un. 

What beautiful birds ! they sing most beautifully. 

T. — What is a common adjective, not varied by comparison. 

Beaiitifitl is a common adjective, not varied in form by compari- 
son, derived from 'beauty by adding tlie suffix fal. 

Most Is an adverb of degree, in the superlative degree. Pos. much. 
Com. more, Super, most. 

Beautifully is an adverb of manner, not varied in form by compar- 
ison, derived from beautiful by adding the suffix ly. 



EXERCISE i:n' parsing. Ill 

He calls forth Eoman drops from British eyes. 

T. — Boman and British are proper adjectives, not varied by com- 
parison, derived from Bomz and Britain. 

War-trained men were stunned with fear. 

H. — War-trained is a compound adjective, not varied by compari- 
son, composed of two words, war and trained. 

Of all the affections that attend hnman life, the love of 
glory is the most ardent. Let us consider what is truly 
glorious, and distinguish that which is empty, perishing, 
and frivolous, from what is solid, lasting, and important. 
How carefully ought the true notion of it to be preserved ! 



DERIVATION. 

Derivation is the drawing or tracing of a word from its 
root or original. 

A primitive word is one that is not derived from any 
other word in our language. 

A derivative word is one that is derived from some other 
word ifi our language. 

A derivative word is generally formed by adding a suf- 
fix or prefix to a primitive : as, Mnd, hindly, hindness, un- 
kind; do, doer, doings, outdo, overdo, undo. 

J. — Are not some English words derived from words in 
other languages ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly. But in studying English grammar, 
we are not required to trace the derivation of our words be- 
yond the English language. A great many v/ords that are 
primitive as far as our language is concerned are derivative, 
if we trace their derivation into other languages ; which is 
the province of the lexicographer: contradict, predict, con- 
vene, i7iterve7ie, conclude, exclude, include, and preclude, 



112 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

though primitive words in English, if we trace them into 
Latin, are derived from dico, venio, and cludo, by prefixing 
contra, pre, con, inter, ex, and in. 

The syllables that are prefixed to primitive words are 
called prefixes ; and those that are annexed are called suf- 
fixes. 

By examining your dictionaries, you will sometimes find 
thirty or forty derivatives that are formed from one little 
word like press, by means of prefixes and suffixes. Our 
primitive words are few, compared with our derivatives. 

ISTouns are derived from verbs by adding the sufiQx age, 
al, ance, ence, ion, ation, ment, ure, ar, er, or, ard, ant, ent, 
or ive : as, leah, leakage ; till, tillage ; avoiv, avoiml ; deny, 
denial; cdlow, alloimnce ; infer, inference; act, action; 
tempt, temptation; lanisli, hanishment ; please, pleasure; 
lie, liar; read, reader ; sail, sailor ; dote, dotard ; drunk, 
drunkard; attend, attendant ; preside, president ; detect, 
detective. 

Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by annex- 
ing ness, ity, hood, or ship : as, hright, brightness ; solid, 
solidity; false, falsehood ; hard, hardship: sometimes by 
annexing th or t and changing some of the letters : as, long, 
length ; deep, depth ; high, height : and sometimes by 
changing t to ce or cy : as, diligent, dilige7ice ; brilliant, 
brilliancy. 

Some nouns are derived from others by adding the suffix, 
head, hood, ship, dom, rick, ery, ian, an, ist, ite, or ade : as, 
God, Godhead ; priest, priesthood ; lord, lordship ; king, 
kingdom; bishop, bishoprick ; fool, foolery; music, mu- 
sician ; Luther, Lutheran ; Calvin, Calvinist ; art, artist ; 
Edom, Edomite ; cannon, cannonade. 

Adjectives are derived from nouns by annexing al, ual, 
ous, uous, ful, less, some, ish, like, ly, en, ic, ical, ary or y : 
as, spine, spinal ; spirit, spiritual, spirituous ; joy, joyful, 
joyous, joyless ; toil, toilsome ; child, childish, childlike, 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 113 

childless J man, manly ; ivool, woolen ; poet, poeiic, poetical; 
vision, visionary ; air, airy ; rain, rainy. 

Adjectives are derived from verbs by suffixing able, iUe, 
antf ent, ient, ive, ory, or atory, or by prefixing a ; as, cliange, 
changeable ; resist, resistible ; triumph, triumphant ; depend, 
dependent ; suffice, sufficient ; express, expressive ; congratu- 
late, congratulatory ; declare, declaratory ; float, afloat; 
thirst, athirst. 

Verbs are derived from nouns and adjectives by annex- 
ing ate, en, fy, or ize, and sometimes by lengthening a vowel 
or softening a consonant : as, gravity, gravitate ; germ, germ' 
inate ; dark, darken ; light, lighten, enlighte7i ; beauty, beau- 
tify ; simple, simplify ; crystal, crystallize ; equal, equalize ; 
glass, glaze ; mouth, mouth. 

Some adverbs are derived from adjectives by annexing 
ly or changing le into ly ; and others are derived from 
nouns by prefixing a : as, brave, bravely ; noble, nobly ; bed, 
abed; foot, afoot ; shore, ashore. 

J. — From what are terminate, fructify, and temporize 
derived ? 

Mr, S. — The derivation of such words does not belong to 
English grammar, because they are not derived from Eng- 
lish words. If you desire to trace their derivation into any 
other language, find them in your dictionary, and see for 
yourselves.* 

J. — Wherein does syntactical parsing differ from etymo- 
logical parsing ? 

Mr. S. — To show you the difierence, I will parse syntact- 
ically the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and adverbs in a 
few sentences. 



* In teaching English gramm-.r we can only take a hasty glance at derivation. 
It presents so wide a field, that some grammarians omit it. Let your pupils study 
"Sanders' Analysis of English Words," and learn the meaning of all the prefixes 
and suffixes. This will help them understand the meaning of derivatives. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Wise men sometimes make mistakes that a child would 
avoid. 

Men is the subject of make, and mistakes is the object ; chUd is the 
subject of would avoid, and that is the object. 

Wise is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging to 
men, according to Rule 7.* 

Men is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of the verb make — 
Rule 1. 

Sometimes is an adverb of time ; relating to make — Rule 1 2. 

Mistakes is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of make — Rule 3. 

That is a connective pronoun, connecting " a child would avoid " 
to *' wise men sometimes make mistakes," in neither gender, plural 
number, and third person ; agreeing with its antecedent mistakes — 
Note 8 to Rule 6 : and in the objective case ; the object of the verb 
would avoid — Rule 2. 

J. is a common adjective ; belonging to child — Rule 7. 

C7iild is a common noun, in either gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of would avoid — Rule 1. 

Kuth has broken her slate. She was very careless. 

Buth is the subject of has broken, and slate is the object ; she is 
the subject of was, and careless is a predicate adjective. 

Buth is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of has broken — Rule 1. 

Her is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with its antecedent Buth — Rule 6: in the third 
person and possessive case ; denoting the possession of slate — Rule 3. 

Slate is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of has broken — Rule 2. 

She is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with its antecedent Buth — Rule 6: in the third 
person and nominative case ; the subject of was — Rule 1. 

Very is an adverb of degree ; relating to careless — Rule 12. 

Careless is a common adjective, in predication with s7ie, and belong- 
ing to it — Rule 7. 

* In parsing syntactically, repeat every rule that yoa mention till you learn the 
application of all the rules of syntax. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 115 

He saved others ; himself he cannot save. 

I He is the subject of sated, and otJiers is the object ; he is the sub- 

Iject of can save, and himself is the object. 

! iTc is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 

inumber ; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus— RxAe 6 : in the third 

[person and nominative case ; the subject of sated— R\\\e 1. 

' Others is an indefinite pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 

[third person, and objective case ; the object of sated— Uvle 2. 

I Himself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gender 

(and singular number ; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus — Rule 6 : in 

jthe third person and objective case ; the object of can save— 'Rule 2. 

I He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 

j number ; agreeing with Jesus— R\x\e 6 : in the third person and nomi- 

i native case ; the subject of can sate — Rule 1. 

Kot is an adverb of negation ; relating to can sate — Rule 13. 

Is there no physician there ? 

There is an expletive adverb ; relating to w— Rule 12. 
No is a common adjective ; belonging to physician — Rule 7. 
1 Physician is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is — Rule 1. 
There is an adverb of place, relating to is— Rule 12. 



Our friend Lazarus sleepeth. 

Friend is the subject of sleepeth, and Lazarus is in apposition with 
friejid. 

Our is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, first person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of 
frie7id—B.}i\e 3. 

Friend is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case; the subject of sleepeth— 
I Rule 1. 

Lazarus is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
I'ber, third person, and nominative case; in apposition with /mn(? — 
^ Rule 4. 

Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 

Thou is the subject of shalt love, and neighbor is the object ; thy is 
a possessive, and thyself is the object of latest understood. 



116 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

TJlou is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
second person, and nominative case ; the subject of shalt love — Rule 1. 

Thy is a personal jDronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
second person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of neigh- 
lor — Rule 3. 

Neighbor is a common noun, in either gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of shalt love — Rule 2. 

Thyself is a compound personal pronoun, in either gender, singu- 
lar number, second person, and objective case ; the object of lovesi un- 
■ derstood — Rule 2. 

She is my friend and neighbor. 

She is the subject of is, friend and neigMior are in predication with 
she, and my is a possessive. 

She is a personal pronoun, in the f emine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case; the subject of is — Rule 1. 

My is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, first 
person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of friend and 
neighbor — Rule 3. 

Friend and neigMor are common nouns, in the feminine gender, 
singular number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication 
with she, and agreeing with it in case — Rule 4. 

And is a connective ; connecting neigJibor to friend — Rule 13. 

" Art thou a friend to Roderick ? " " ISTo." 
'* Thou darest not call thyself a foe ? " 

Thou is the subject of art, friend is in predication vvith thou, and 
Roderick is the object of the preposition to. Thou is the subject of 
darest, thyself is the object of call, and foe is in apposition with 
tliyself 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and nominative case; the subject of art — 
Rule 1. 

J. is a common adjective ; belonging to friend— 'Rvle 7. 

Friend is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with tho%l, 
and agreeing with it in case — Rule 4. 

To is a preposition, expressing the relation of friend to Roderick 
—Rule 11. 

Roderick is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the object of to — Rule 2. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 117 

Ko is a responsive adverb ; relating to art, the verb that asks the 
question to which it responds — Rule 12. 

J. — We've been taught to call sucli words independent 
adverbs, having no relation to a verb or any other part of 
speech. 

Mr. 8. — Does yes or no make any sense alone without 
relating to some other word ? Do we ever say yes or no 
when nothing has been said for us to answer ? These 
words are significant only as responses to inquiries or asser- 
tions. Yes and no are used to ansAver questions that we ask 
with verbs, and therefore they relate to verbs. This may be 
said of certainly, yea, and nay, when they are used to answer 
questions. Amen responds to some assertion, and relates to 
the verb we use to make it. Therefore, such words may be 
properly called responsive adverbs. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and nominative case ; the subject of darest— 
Rule 1. 

Not is an adverb of negation ; relating to darest — Rule 12. 

Thyself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, 
singular number, second person, and objective case ; the object of call 
—Rule 2. 

Foe is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; in apposition with thyself— R^3le 4. 

He is called a conqueror, because he commands great 
fleets and armies. 

ne is the subject of is called, and conqueror is in predication with 
he; he is the subject of commands, and fleets and armies are the 
objects. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is called — 
Rule 1. 

Conqueror is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with he — 
Rule 4. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the raasculijie gender, singular num- 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of commands — 
Rule 1. 

Great is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging 
to fleets and armies — Rule 7. 

Fleets and armies are collective nouns, in neither gender, plural 
number, third person, and objective case ; the objects of commands — 
Rule 3. 

Whose damsel is this ? 

This is the subject of is, and damsel is in predication with this. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender, singular 
number, third person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession 
of damsel — Rule 3. 

Damsel is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case; in predication with tJds — Rule 4. 

This is a demonstrative pronoun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is— Rule 1. 

These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true, 
And, Saxon, — I am Koderick Dhu ! 

These is the subject of are, Clan- Alpine's is a possessive, and war- 
riors is in predication with these ; I is the subject of am, and Roderich 
Dhu is in predication with I; but Saxon don't depend on any other word. 

These is a demonstrative pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — Rule 1. 

Clan- Alpine's is a proper noun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and possessive case, denoting the possession of 
warriors — Rule 3. 

Warriors is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with these 
—Rule 4. 

Saxon is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case independent — Rule 5. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, first person, and nominative case ; the subject of am — Rule 1. 

Roderick Dhu is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with /— 
Rule 4. 

Who can tell us who they are ? 

Who is the subject of can tell, and us is the object ; they is the 
subject of are, and who is in predication with they. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 119 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of can tell — 
Rule 1. 

Us is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and objective case ; the object of can tell — Rule 2. 

Who is a connective pronoun, connecting "they are" to "who 
can tell us," in either gender, plural number, third person, and nomi- 
native case ; in predication with they — Rule 4. 

They is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — Rule 1 

Alas, poor Yorick ! — I knew him, Horatio ; a fellow of 
infinite jest. 

/ is the subject of knew, and Mm is the object ; fellow is in appo- 
sition with Mm, and jest is the object of the preposition of. Yorick 
and Horatio are neither subjects of verbs nor objects of verbs or 
prepositions, nor possessives, nor in apposition or predication with 
any noun or pronoun ; they have no grammatical dependence on any 
other word, and are therefore in the nominative case independent. 

Ala& is an exclamation. 

Poor is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging to 
FoTiC^— Rule 7. 

Yorick is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case independent — Rule 5. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, first person, and nominative case; the subject of kriew — 
Rule 1. 

Him is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with Yorick — Rule 6 : in the third person and ob- 
jective case ; the object of knew — Rule 2. 

Horatio is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case independent — Rule 5, 

Fellow is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; in apposition with M/m — 
Rule 4. 

Of is a preposition; expressing the relation of fellow to jest — 
Rule 11. 

Infinite is a common adjective ; belonging to jest — Rule 7. 

Jest is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of of—'Rvle 2. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To enjoy is to obey. 

To enjoy is tlie subject of is, and to obey is in predication with 
to enjoy. 

To enjoy is a verbal noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of es— Rule 1. 

To oley is a verbal noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; in predication with to enjoy — Rule 4. 

What meaueth this bleating of the sheep ? 

Bleating is the subject of meaneth, and what is the object. 

What is an interrogative pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case; the object of meaneth — 
Rule 2. 

This is a common adjective ; belonging to bleating — Rule 7. 

Bleating is a verbal noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of meaneth — Rule 1. 

Of is a preposition ; expressing the relation of bleating to sheep — 
Rule It. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to sheep — Rule 7. 

Sheep is a common noun, in either gender, plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of <?/— Rule 2. 

Assyria, Greece, Eome, Carthage, what are they ? 

Assyria, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, are proper nouns, in neither 
gender, singular number, third person, and nominative case independ- 
ent — Rule 5. 

WJiat is an interrogative pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with they 
—Rule 4. 

TJiey is a personal pronoun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — Rule 1. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

I is the subject of tell, and you is the indirect object, and that is 
the direct object ; you is the subject of do know, and ichich is the ob- 
ject, and yourselves is in apposition with you. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular number 
first pei-son, and nominative case; the subject of tell — Rule 1. 



EXERCISE I if PARSING. 121 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and objective case; the indirect object of tell — 
Rule 2. 

That is a demonstrative pronoun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of tell — Rule 2. 

WJiich is a connective pronoun, connecting " you yourselves do 
know" to " I tell you that," in neither gender, singular number, and 
third person ; agreeing with that — Note 8 to Rule 6 : and in the ol>- 
jective case ; the object of do know — Rule 2. 

Tou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case ; the subject of do know — 
Rule 1. 

Yourselves is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gen- 
der, plural number, second person, and nominative case ; in apposition 
with you — Rule 4. 

Jl. — Why are /and yoic in the masculine gender ? 

Mr. S. — Because their antecedents are in the masculine 
gender: / stands for Marc Antony, and you stands for 
Romans. 

E. — You forgot to mention their agreement with their 
antecedents. 

Mr. S. — I omitted it to give you a chance to criticise me. 
This is not the first omission. If our critics had been verv 
watchful, they might have criticised me several times. I am 
quite a blunderer in parsing. Watch me closely. 

/. — Must we always tell what pronouns agree with ? 

Mr. /S'.— When you know exactly what their antecedents 
are tell their agreement, and omit it when the antecedents 
are unknown. 

Thou, being a man, makest thyself God. 

TJioti is the subject of makest, and thyself is the object ; man is in 
predication with thou, and God is in apposition with thyself. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with rs antecedent JesMs— Rule 6 : in the second 
person and nominative case ; the subject of makest— 'Rule 1. 

A is a common adjective ; belonging to man — Rule 7. 
6 



123 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Man is a common noun, in tlie masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; in predication with thou — Rule 4. 

Thyself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gender 
and singular number ; agreeing with Jesus— R\\\e 6 : in the second 
person and objective case ; the object of makest — Rule 2. 

God is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular nuiliber, 
third person, and objective case ; in apposition with thysdf—''Si\Ae 4. 

He saw a man named Matthew. 

He is the subject of saw, and man is the object, and Matthew is in 
predication with man. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 6 : in the third person and nomi- 
native case ; the subject of saw — Rule 1. 

Man is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of saw — Rule 2. 

Matthew is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in predication with man — Rule 4. 

Whom do you take us to be ? 

You is the subject of do take, and us is the object, and whom is in 
predication with us. 

Whom is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in predication with us — Rule 4. 

Tou is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, second 
person, and nominative case; the subject of do take — Rule 1. 

TIs is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of do take — Rule 2. 

E. — How can we tell whether a nonn or pronoun is in 
apposifcion or in predication with another? 

Mr. S. — A noun or pronoun that is added to another 
signifying the same person or thing, for the sake of emphasis 
or explanation, is in apposition with it. A predicate noun 
or pronoun is in predication with the subject of the yerb 
with which it is used to characterize a person or thing ; as, 
'* Alexander, the conqueror, died a drunkard." "I," the 
Lord, am thy Saviour and thy Eedeemer." Here conquerof 
is in apposition, and drunkard is in predication with Alexan- 



EXEiaCISE IN PARSIITG. 123 

der ; Lord is in apposition, and Saviour and Redeemer are 
in predication with /. 

I remember what I read. 

This is equivalent in sense to " 1 VQVuemb&T that wliicli 1 r^^^ \'* 
and as tliat is the object of remember, and ichich is the object of read, 
so loJiat is the object of remember and also the object of read : it per- 
forms the office of both that and lohich, and has a twofold case. 

/ is the subject of remember, and what is the object ; and / is the 
subject of read, and ichat is the object. 

What is a connective pronoun, connecting " I read " to " I remem- 
ber," in neither gender, singular number, third person, and objective 
case twofold ; the object of read and also of remember — Rule 2. 

What can't be cured must be endured. 
That must be endured which can't be cured. 

As that is the subject of must be endured, and ichich is the subject 
of can be cured, so what, their equivalent, is the subject of can be cured 
and also the subject of must be endured. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case twofold ; the subject of can be cured 
and also of must be endured — Rule 1. 

I heard what was said. I heard that which was said. 

As that is the object of heard and iDhich is the subject of was said, 
BO what, their equivalent, is the object of heard and also the subject 
of was said. 

Wliat is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case, and also in the nominative case ; the 
object of heard and the subject of was said — Rules 1 and 2. 

Whoever commits a crime must be punished. Any per- 
son that commits a crime must be punished. 

As ^jerson is the subject of must be punished, and that is the sub- 
ject of commits, so whoemr, their equivalent, is the subject of must be 
punished and also of commits. 

Whoever is a connective pronoun, in either gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case twofold ; the subject of commits 
and also of must be punished — Bule 1. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Whosoever hatetli bis brother is a murderer. 
He that hateth bis brother is a murderer. 

He is the subject of is, and murderer is in predication with he; 
and that is the subject of hattth, and hroiher is the object. 

Y/hosoever is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, and nominative case twofold; the subject 
of hateth and also of is— Rule 1. 

i?.— To make our parsing easy, we've been taught to 
substitute that tvMch for luJiat, and he tvJio for tuhoever. 

Mr, S.—ln parsing any sentence, we are not at liberty to 
skip hard words and substitute easier ones that we consider 
equivalent in sense ; for this would make a different sen- 
tence, and the author might complain of us for garbling his 
expressions. We should parse the very words he uses, if the 
sentence is correct. We may supply ellipses with words 
that are omitted, or explain the meaning or construction by 
equivalent expressions ; but we must not drop a word and 
substitute another one in parsing. 

p._Why don't you call these words relative pronouns? 

jf^. ^;— Because they all connect different parts of sen- 
tences, and none of them but lolio, ivhich, that, and as, 
relate to antecedents; and even who and ivhich, when used 
as connective pronouns, sometimes have no relation to 
another word ; as, " I do not care loho knows it." '' It is 
immaterial ivhich you take." "She told me who were 
there." When we call such words connective pronouns, we 
give them an appropriate and comprehensive name descrip- 
tive of the office they perform. 

Mary borrowed John's books, and lent hers. 
Mary borrowed John's books, and lent her books. 

Here hoolis is the object of lent, and her is a possessive standing 
for Mary ; and as hers is equivalent in sense to her looks, it represents 
the possessor and the things possessed, and is in the possessive and 
the objective case : it stands for Mary's looks. 



EXERCISE IK PARSING. 125 

Hers IS a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, tliird person, and possessive case, in form ; (standing for 
Mary ;) bat in neither gender, plural number, third person, and ob- 
jective case, in construction; (standing for books;) the object of lent — 
Rule 2. 

J. — Is not booJcs understood after hers ? 

Mr. S. — If it is understood after hers, it can be properly 
supplied. Let us see. " Mary borrowed John's books, and 
lent hers books." Is this good English ? 

Do you not perceive that books is represented by hers, 
and not understood after it ? 

Death, like a narrow sea, divides 
That happy land from ours. 

As ours is equivalent in sense to our land, it represents the pos- 
sessors and the thing possessed, and is in the possessive and the ob- 
jective case. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and possessive case, in form ; but in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case in construction ; the object 
oifrom — Rule 2. 

Your friends are mine, and mine are yours. 
Your friends are my friends, and my friends are your 
friends. 

Here mine is equivalent to my friends, and yours to your friends. 

Your is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
second person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession oi friends 
—Rule 3. 

Friends is a common noun, in either gender, plural number third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — Rule 1. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and possessive case in form ; but in either gender, plural 
number, third person, and nominative case in construction ; in predi- 
cation with, friends — Rule 4. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and possessive case in form ; but in either gender, plural 



l^.ij ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

number, third person, and nominative case in construction, tlie sub. 
ject of are— Rule 1. 

Yours is a personal pronoun, in eitlier gender, plural number, 
second person, and possessive case in form ; but in either gender, 
plural number, third person, and nominative case in construction ; in 
predication with mine — Rule 4. 

They called me blue-eyed Mary 
When friends and fortune smiled j 

But how fortunes vary ! 
I now am sorrow's child. 

They is the subject of called, smd me is the object; Mary is in 
apiposition with me ; friends Siiid fortune are the subjects of smiled; 
■ fortunes is the subject of vary ; lis the subject of am, and child is in 
predication with /. 

Which of you will parse this sentence. I have shown 
you its construction. Tryjt, Mary. 

M. — They is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of called — Rule 1. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender, singular num- 
ber, first person, and objective case ; the object of called — Rule 3. 

Blue-eyed is a compound adjective ; belonging to Mary — Rule 7. 

Mary is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; in apposition with m^?— Rule 4. 

When is a connective ; connecting " friends and fortune smiled " 
to " they called me blue-eyed Mary " — Rule 13. 

Friends is a common noun in either gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of smiled — Rule 1. 

And is a connective, connecting fortune to friends — Rule 13. 

Fortune is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case : the subject of smiled ^Rule 1. 

But is a connective ; connecting " how fortunes vary ! " to " they 
called me blue-eyed Mary when friends and fortune smiled " — Rule 
13. 

is an exclamation. 

How is an adverb of manner ; relating to vary — Rule 12. 

Fortunes is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of vary— Rule 1. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 127 

/is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
first person, and nominative case; the subject of am — Rule 1. 

Now is an adverb of time relating to am — Rule 12. 

Son'ovfs is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of child-— 
Rule 3. 

Child is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; in predication with i^-Rule 4 

Mr. S, — You have done extremely well for a beginner i 
you have parsed it all except the verbs. , 

M. — You have not told us how to parse verbs. 

Mr. S. — I will explain them thoroughly next week, and 
tell you how to parse them. 

J. — Are not fortune and sorrow figuratively proper 
nouns in the feminine gender ? 

Mr. S. — On this point good grammarians might dis- 
agree. The gender of such nouns depends on a rhetorical 
figure, and this question properly belongs to rhetoric. Un- 
less their gender, in the figurative sense, is clearly indicated 
by the context, you may parse them in their literal sense. 

Fair Liberty, Britannia's Goddess, rears 

Her cheerful head, and leads the golden years. 

H. — Liberty is the subject of rears and leads ; Goddess is in appo- 
sition with Liberty ; head is the object of rears; and years is the ob- 
ject of leads. 

Fair is a common adjective, in the positive degree; belonging to 
Liberty — Rule 7. 

Liberty is figuratively a prox)er noun, in the feminine gender, 
siogular number, third person, and nominative case; the subject of 
rears and leads — Rule 1. 

Britannia's is a proper noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of God- 
dess— "Rule 3. 

Goddess is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; in apposition with Laherty — 
Rule 4 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Her is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with Liberty — Rule C : in the third person and 
possessive case ; denoting the possession of Tiead — Rule 3. 

Cheerful is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging 
to head — Rule 7. 

Head is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of ream — Rule 2. 

And is a connective ; connecting " leads the golden years " to 
" rears her cheerful head " — Rule 13. 

Tlie and golden are common adjectives ; belonging to years — 
Rule 7. 

Years is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of leads — Rule 2. 

Sentences to be Parsed. 

Things are not what they seem. There is an outward 
show that, in some cases, dazzles our sight, and in others, 
deceives our judgment. That which promises much fre- 
quently yields but little, while that which has been under- 
valued is often abundantly productive. 

The bitterest herb that grows upon the mountain. 
Some grateful perfume in the gale may fling ; 

The welling stream of a neglected fountain, 
Some healing life-preserving power may bring. 

We learn, in our very childhood, that the cat's velvet 
paw is not talonless ; that the blackberry grows on a brier ; 
that the blooming bud is often cankered at its heart ; that 
the shining bubble bursts while it glitters in the sun ; and 
that the sparkling firework ends only in darkness : and yet 
in after years, we suffer ourselves to be deceived by appear- 
ances, almost as much as ever. 

It seems a sort of principle among mankind, to appear 
other than they are. Many who are ill, scrupulously hide 
their infirmities; while others who are well, affect to be out 
of health. There are rich people who try to appear poor, 



EXERCISE IN" PARSING. 129 

and hundreds of poor people who endeavor to pass them- 
selves off as very rich. Some keep hack the truth out of 
kindness to the feelings of others. Some make mountains 
of mole-hills, or mole-hills of mountains, to serve themselves 
or their friends ; and thousands are, in their minds, hodies, 
and estates, just the reverse of what their appearance sets 
forth. for a hearty and unhounded confidence in Him 
who deceiveth not, but is the same yesterday, to-day, and 
forever ! 

When Haman erected a gallows, fifty cubits high, he was 
misled by appearances: he saw, by anticipation, Mordecai 
hanging thereon ; but his gallows was the instrument of his 
own destruction. 

Samson the strong saw not, in the fair face of his Deli- 
lah, deceit, treachery, bondage, cruelty, and death ; nor did 
the learned Rabbins of the Jews discern, in the fleshly form 
of the Man of sorrows, the Lord of life and glory. They 
were misled by outward appearances. 

The mighty have been deceived by outside show as much 
as the mean. The Alexanders and the Caesars of old had 
thorns enough in their paths ; and the sultans and emper- 
ors of more modern times have seldom found the couch of 
royalty to be a bed of down. The outward splendor of a 
throne, and the phantom of glory, dazzled their eyes, and 
they saw not the disappointments and the disquietudes that 
awaited them. 



Lo, tlie poor Indian ! wliose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds, or hears liim in tlie wind : 
His soul proud science never taught to stray 
Far as the solar walk, or milky way ; 
Yet simple nature to his hope has given, 
Behind the cloud-topp'd hill, a humbler heaven : 
Some safer world in depth of woods embraced. 
Some happier island in the watery waste. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Where slaves once more tlieir native land behold. 

No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold. 

To be, contents his natural desire : 

He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; 

But thinks, admitted to that equal sky. 

His faithful dog shall bear him company. 

Ask for what end the heavenly bodies shine. 
Earth for whose use ? Pride answers, " 'Tis for mine ! 
For me kind nature wakes her genial power, 
Suckles each herb, and sjDreads out every flower ; 
Annual for me, the grape, the rose renew 
The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew ; 
For me the mine a thousand treasures brings ; 
For me health gushes from a thousand springs ; 
Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise ; 
My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." 

But they who Jordan's swelling tide 

No more are called to stem, 
Whose tears the hand of God hath dried, 

Why should we mourn for them ? * 



* After carefully perusing the preceding exercises, let your pupils parse all the 
words in these sentences except the verbs, according to the models there presented. 
In reviewing grammar, (when they have been drilled in parsing verbs.) let them 
parse all the parts of speech in these, as well as other sentences that we have used 
for special purposes. 



ETYMOLOQT. 131 

CONVERSATION Y. 

CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 

Mr, 8. — See that little child observing all the actions of 
the larger children, who are playing round him. See him 
try to imitate them. What is he learning to do ? 

T.—Rq is learning to act like other children. 

/. — He is learning to think what they are doing; for, 
unless he has correct impressions of their actions mirrored 
in his mind as thoughts to guide him, he can never imitate 
them : he must think correctly what he is about to do be- 
fore he can do it. 

Mr. S. — James, you are right. We must think correctly 
before we can act correctly, and receive correct impressions 
before we can think correctly. Thought and action are re- 
ciprocal: what we do depends on what we think, and what 
we think depends on what is done around us. Thoughts 
are first impressed upon our minds by outward actions, as 
ideas are by outward objects. Children learn to think by 
carefully observing what is done around them; and they 
make their thoughts manifest by actions long before they 
can express them in words. 

We frequently see children and foreigners use gestures in- 
stead of verbs to communicate their thoughts, and imitate 
sounds with their voices. ISTothing is more easy and natural 
than to express the thoughts that sounds impress upon our 
minds by vocal imitations of them. Hence arise such verbs 
as huzz^ hiss, hum, coo, emu, meiv, luhiz, etc., which, like ex- 
clamations, are the germs of speech, the voice of nature. 
Children use such words, at first, abruptly as exclamations, 
to express the feelings that the sounds excite; as, buzz! 



133 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

hum ! coo ! But when they learn to trace effects to their 
causes, and ascribe attributes to their subjects, they begin to 
think from what the sounds proceed, and use these words 
deUbei-ately as verbs united with subjects to express their 
thoughts; as, "Flies buzz; bees hu7,i ; doves coo" 

M. — I've heard some children say, " Dogs boiu zuotv." 

Mr. S. — That is a closer vocal imitation of sound than 
to say, dogs bark, yelp, whine, or groid. 

G. — Do not these verbs express actions instead of 
thoughts ? 

Mr. S. — All the actions we observe must be impressed 
upon the mind and there converted into thoughts, before 
they are expressed in language. See if any of you can 
express my actions without thinking what I do. 

B. — You rise from your seat, and walk across the room ; 
you pick up that book, and give it to Kuth ; you bow to her, 
and wave your hand. 

Mr. S. — Select the verbs in what Emma has just said. 

D. — Eise; walk, pick, give, bow, wave. 

Mr. S. — Do these verbs express thoughts or actions ? 

R. — They express thoughts: with them Emma told 
what she thought of you. 

P. — They express actions : with them she told what you 
were doing. 

Mr. S. — She told what she thought I was doing. Do 
you observe these actions now ? 

P. — Why, no : they have entirely ceased to exist. 

3fr. S. — Every action must be present to the observer; 
for an action has no existence before it takes place, and 
ceases to exist as soon as it is done ; like a flash of hghtning 
bursting from the bosom of a cloud, and swallowed up by 
the jaws of night before we can say, " It lightens." But 
thought is not confined by time or place : it travels back 
into the past, and forward to the future, and ranges through 
the boundless fields of infinite space. From momentary 



ETYMOLOGY. 133 

actions spring immortal thoughts, that wander through 
eternity. 

J. — How do you know these actions ever did exist ? 

P. — I have clear impressions of them in my memory : I 
remember every action that was done. 

Mr. S. — These impressions in your memory are thoughts, 
already modified by reflection which has superadded the idea 
of past time to that of action. Now these thoughts require 
a variation of the verb to express them. , 

B. — I see, I see ! We must express them so as to denote 
past time ; thus, " Yon rose from your seat, and zvalked 
across the room ; you picked up that book, and gave it to 
Euth ; you botved to her, and ivaved your hand." 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Mr. S. — Now write these sentences, and take particular 
notice how these verbs are varied to denote past time. 

R. — All of them but rise and give are varied in a regular 
manner: they have d or ed added. Therefore they are reg- 
ular verbs. These two verbs are not varied according to 
any regular method. So they are called irregular verbs. 

A regular verb is a verb whose past tense and perfect 
participle are formed by adding ed to its present tense, or d 
only when it ends in e. 

An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and perfect 
participle are not formed by adding ed to its present tense, 
or d only when it ends in e. 

Mr. S. — Is talk a regular or an irregular verb ? 

H. — Let me see. I talk, I talked, I have talked. It is 
a regular verb, because its past tense and perfect participle 
are formed by adding ed to its present tense. 

Mr. S. — Is move regular or irregular ? 

W. — I move, I moved, I have moved. It is regular, be- 



134 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



cause its past tense and perfect participle are formed by 
adding d to its present tense, which ends in e. 

Mr. S. — Is speah regular or irregular ? 

E. — I speak, I spoke, I have spoken. It is irregular, be- 
cause its past tense and perfect participle are not formed by 
adding ed, or d only, to its present tense. 

Mr. S. — Select the verbs in these sentences, and tell 
whether they are regular or irregular. 

It is spring : the sun shines, the flowers bloom, the birds 
sing, and the lambs skip and play. 

G. — Is, shines, and sing, are irregular yerbs ; and hloom, 
skip, and play, are regular. 

His lessons are excused ; his indulgent parents hide his 
faults, and inflate his childish vanity ; he is petted, and 
praised, and humored ; but he is not taught to remember 
his Creator in the days of his youth. 

He saw unnumbered pleasures wait 

That manhood only could attain ; 
But now, when grown to man's estate. 

He finds the cherished vision vain : 
For disappointment, grief, or care. 
In every pleasure cries, Forbear ! 

M. — How can we always tell whether a verb is regular 
or irregular ? 

Mr. S. — By committing to memory this list of irregular 
verbs. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide, 


abode. 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, R, 


awaked. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Bear,* 


bare, 


born. 


Bear,f 


bore. 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat. 


beaten, beat. 


* Bear, 


to bring forth. 


t Bear, to carry. 



ETYJIOLOGY 



186 



Present T&im. 


Past Tense. 


Per/. Part. 


Begin, 


began. 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent. 


bent. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade. 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew. 


blown. 


Break, 


broke. 


broken. * 


Breed, 


bred. 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Burst, 


burst. 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast. 


cast. 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid. 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose. 


chosen. 


Cleave,* 


clove, cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung. 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came. 


come. 


Cost, 


cost. 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut. 


cut. 


Dare,t 


durst, R. 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did. 


done. 


Draw, 


drew. 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreamt, R. 


Driuk, 


drank. 


drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R, 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell. 


fallen. 


* Cleave, to split. 




t Dare, to venture. 



136 



ENGLISH C; Jl A i! M A 11 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Part. 


Feed, 


fed. 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung. 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got. 


got.* 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave. 


given. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved. 


graven, R. 


Grind, 


ground. 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew. 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had. 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Hew, 


hewed. 


hewn, R. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt. 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew. 


known. 


Lade, 


laded. 


laden, R. 


Lay, 


laid. 


laid. 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


Leave, 


left. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent. 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie,t 


lay. 


lain. 


Light. 


lit, R 


lit, R. 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its ^cviv&ivfQ forgotten is still in good ose. 
t Lie, to rest. 



ETYMOLOGY 



137 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perf. Part. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, R. 


meant, R. 


Meet, 


met. 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, R. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Read, 


read. 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. ' 


Rid, 


rid. 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode.* 


Ring, 


rung, rang. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived. 


riven, R. 


Run, 


ran. 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed. 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


See, 


saw. 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought. 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold. 


sold. 


Send, 


sent. 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped. 


shapen, R. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shorn, R. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed. 


shown, R. 


Shred, 


shred. 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang. 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank. 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slain. 



* Kidden is nearly obso.ete. 



138 



ENGLISH GEAMMAB 



"esent Tetise. 


Past Tense. 


Per/, Part. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid. 


slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


slung. 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote. 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


spoke. 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped. 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent. 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun. 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat. 


spit. 


Split, 


split. 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung. 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck. 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung. 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk. 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode, strid. 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


String, 


strung, R. 


strung, R. 


Strive, 


strove, R. 


striven, R. 


Strow, 


strowed. 


strown, R. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swet, R. 


swet, R. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung. 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught. 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. 


thriven, R. 


Throw, 


threw. 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust. 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, trod 





ETIfMOLOQY. 


la 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 




Perf. Part. 


Wake, 


woke, R. 




waked. 


Wear, 


wore. 




worn. 


Weave, 


wove. 




woven. 


Weep, 


wept. 




wept. 


Win, 


won, 


* 


won. 


Wind, 


wound. 




wound. 


Work, 


worked. 


wrought. 


worked, wrought 


Wring. 


wrung, 




wrung. 


Write, 


wrote. 




written. 



D.—Whj is R used after the past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple of some of these irregular verbs ? 

Mr. 6'.— Because some of them are occasionally used as 
regular verbs : R stands for regular. When the regular 
form is preferable, it is used before the irregular form at 
full length ; and when a verb has two irregular forms, that 
which is sanctioned by the best authority is used before tire 
other. 

A verb whose past tense or perfect participle has more 
than one form is called a redundant verb. 

J. — Does this list contain all our irregular verbs ? 

Mr. S. — It contains all of them that are primitive words. 
Derivatives are omitted, because their past tense and perfect 
participle are generally formed like the past tense and per- 
fect participle of the verbs from which they are derived ; as, 
foreJcnoiv, foresee, oversee, forget, outrun, overtake, under- 
stand, undergo, outsell, overgroio, overset, overthrow, inter- 
tueave, etc. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS. 



The preceding classification of verbs has respect to their 
form only. But the classification which we are about to 
consider depends on the very essence of sentences, our 



140 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

thoughts themselves, and consequently has respect to the 
construction of verbs in sentences. As thoughts are first 
impressed upon our minds by actions, so transition of action 
necessarily produces a corresponding transition of thought. 

T. — We don't exactly understand you, Mr. Smith. What 
is the meaning of transition of action ? 

Mr. S. — Look at me, and learn from object-teaching. 
When I strike the desk the action passes from me to the 
desk. This is transition of action ; for transition means a 
passing from one thing to another. So the passing of a 
thought from one thing to another is transition of thought. 
An action that passes from the actor to an object is a tran- 
sitive action, and the thought which it impresses on the 
mind is transitive. When we think a person or thing does 
something to another, or that something is done to the per- 
'Ifon or thing that we are thinking of, the thought is transi- 
tive ; (for it follows the action in passing from one to the 
other;) and the verb that we use to express it is called a 
transitive verb ; as, " Henry whips the horse. The horse is 
whipped by Henry. The sun melts the ice. The ice is 
melted by the sun." All verbs that are not transitive are 
called intransitive verbs ; as, " Henry walks. The horse 
runs. The sun rises. The ice melts." 

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses a transition of 
thought or action. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not express a 
transition of thought or action. 

M. — Does not every transitive verb express a transition 
of action ? 

J. — Every transitive verb expresses a transition of 
thought; but some transitive verbs do not express any 
transition of action, and some not even any action. 

E. — Give us a few examples of such transitive verbs. 

J. — John resembles his father. Our alphabet contains 
twenty-six letters. The rafters uphold the roof, the plates 



ETYMOLOGY. 141 

support the rafters, and the braces heep the building from 
swayiDg. Charles disobeys the teacher, and neglects his 
studies. I forgot mj books, and left them at home. We 
sliould avoid bad company. Ye shall Icnow the truth. Bc- 
lievest thou the prophets ? Ye shall seek me, but shall not 
find me. We revere those ancient worthies ; we admire 
their noble deeds, and emulate their virtues. He was loved 
and esteemed by all who kneio him. Should old acquaint- 
ance 5e forgot ? Though there is no real transition of 
action expressed by any of these verbs, there is an actual 
transition of thought expressed by every one of them ; as 
you may see by carefully observing each example. John 
resembles his father. Here we think of John without ob- 
serving any action ; and then the thought passes to his 
father, and is therefore transitive. 

VOICES. 

When we think what a person or thing does to another, 
as the thought follows the action, it passes from the subject 
to an object ; but when we think what is done to the person 
or thing tliat we are thinking of, the thought, as well as the 
action, passes to the subject ; as, " John strikes Edward ; 
Edward is struck by John." '- The sun warms the earth ; 
the earth is warmed by the sun." This variation of verbs 
is called voice. 

Voice is a particular form of a transitive verb, which 
shows whether the transition of thought or action is from 
the subject or to it. 

Transitive verbs have two voices ; the active and the 
passive. 

The active voice is that form which shows that the 
transition is from the subject to an object. 

The passive voice is that form which shows that the 
transition is to the subject. 



14^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J. — Let me simplify your definitions. They are very 
philosophical, but rather too abstruse for such uncultivated 
minds as ours. 

Voice is a particular form of a transitive verb, which 
shows whether the action passes from the subject or to it. 

The active voice is that form which expresses an action 
done by the subject to an object. 

The passive voice is that form which expresses an action 
done to the subject. 

The active voice is so called because the subject does the 
action, and is therefore active : the passive voice is so called 
because the subject receives the action, and is therefore 
passive. 

Mr, S. — Your definitions are a little plainer than mine; 
but they are not applicable to all transitive verbs, in every 
mood and tense. If any of you like them, use them. I can 
make you understand the voices better by good practical 
exercises than by any definitions. Tell me what any persons 
or things that you are thinking of, do, or did, or will do, or 
may do, or might have done,* to any other persons or 
things ; and the verbs you use will be in the active voice. 

P. — Bees make honey. Birds build nests. Hawks Jcill 
chickens. Crows pull corn. Cows eat grass. Men clear 
the land and cultivate it. Merchants buy and sell goods. 
Charles 7ias torn the book that I lent him, and I have lost 
his knife. 

Mr. 6'— All these verbs are in the active voice. Now 
tell me what is done to any persons or things that you are 
thinking of, or what was done, or will be done, or may be 
done, or might have been done, to them ; and the verbs you 
use will be in the passive voice. 

E. — Hawks are shot. Pigeons are caught in nets. Lions 
are tamed. Cities are built. Carthage toas destroyed. How 



* This is liable to all the variations of mood and tense. 



ETYMOLOGY. 143 

many crimes have been committed! How many nations have 
been ruined by conquerors! The train ivas throiun from 
the track ; and twenty passengers ivere killed and fifty 
wounded. Some luere terribly mangled, and others burned 
to death. If the road had been kept in good repair, this 
shocking accident might have been prevejited. 

E. — Are these transitive verbs ? Does not every transi- 
tive verb require an object. 

Mr. S. — Every transitive verb in the active voice must 
have an object either expressed or understood; but these 
are in the passive voice, and therefore they have no objects. 
Let us have a practical illustration. Use the same verbs in 
the passive voice that I use in the active voice. 

I take this book. I open it and read it. 

H. — This book is taken by me. It is opened and read 
by me. 

I bought a book and gave it to Mary. 

E. — A book loas bought by me and given to Mary. 

The horse kicked me, and I lohipped him. 

W. — I was kicked by the horse, and he was luhipped 
by me. 

The sun warms the air and melts the snow. 

G. — The air is ivarmed and the snow is melted by the sun. 

We should honor and respect our teachers. 

T. — Our teachers should be honored and respected by us. 

1 know him well : I see him every day. 

M. — He is well known by me : He is seen by me every 
day. 

The rich despise the poor, and the poor eiivy the rich. 

P. — The poor are despised by the rich, and the rich are 
envied by tlie poor. 

I remember all the scenes of my childhood : I shall never 
forget my native land. 

N. — All the scenes of my childhood are remembered by 
me: my native land tvill never be forgotten. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Time conquers all, and we 7nust time obey. 

D. — All a7'e conquered by time, and time must le obeyed 
by us. 

F. — Does each of these verbs express an actual transition 
of action. 

Mr. S. — No, not more than half of them ; but every one 
of them expresses a transition of thought. From this exer- 
cise you see that the object of a transitive verb in the active 
voice is made its subject in the passiA'e voice, and that the 
same thought may be expressed in both voices. As intran- 
sitive verbs have no objects to become subjects, they cannot 
be used in the passive voice. By this criterion you can 
easily distinguish them. 

R. — Are intransitive verbs ever in the active voice ? 

Mr. S. — No ; for active and passive are correlative terms : 
the active voice necessarily implies a corresponding passive 
voice. Therefore, neither voice can be properly applied to 
intransitive verbs. 

/. — Why do verbs have two voices to express the same 
thoughts ? 

Mr. S. — For the sake of unity, variety, and flexibility. 
Besides, we often wish to tell what has been done without 
mentioning the doer; as, " My book is torn. My watch was 
stolen. He was robbed and murdered." 

Change the transitive verbs in the sentences I read from 
the active to the passive voice, and from the passive to the 
active. 

Other misfortunes may be borne, or their effects overcome. 
If disastrous war should siveep our commerce from the 
ocean, another generation may renew it. 

E. — We may bear other misfortunes, or overcome their 
effects. If our commerce should be swept from the ocean by 
disastrous war, it may be renewed by another generation. 

If it exhaust our treasury, future industry may replenish 
it If it desolate and lay waste our fields, still, under a new 



ETYMOLOGY. 145 

cultivation, they will grow gi-een again, and ripen to future 
harvests. 

H.—li oiir treasury he exhausted, it may he replenished 
by fu ture industry. If our fields he desolated and laid waste, 
still, under a new cultivation, they will grow green again, and 
ripen to future harvests. 

Grow and ripen are intransitive verbs, and cannot be 
varied by voice. 

It were but a trifle, even if the wall of yonder ' capitol 
were to crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and its gor- 
geous decorations he all covered by the dust of the valley. 
All these might be rebuilt. 

G.—lt were but a trifle, even if the wall of yonder capi- 
tol were to crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and the 
dust of the valley cover all its gorgeous decorations. We 
might rebuild all these. 

Were, to crumble, and should fall, are intransitive verbs. 
But who shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished govern- 
ment. Who shall rear again the well proportioned columns 
of constitutional liberty ? Who shall frame together the 
skillful architecture which unites national sovereignty with 
state rights ? 

Jf.— But by whom shall the fabric of demolished gov- 
ernment be reconstructed 9 By whom shall the well-propor- 
tioned columns of constitutional liberty 6e reared again? 
By whom shall the skillful architecture he framed together 
by which national sovereignty is united with state rights ? 

The chieftain's gripe his throat compressed, 
His knee -was planted on his breast. 

r.— His throat ivas compressed by the chieftain's gi-ipe. 
His knee he planted on his breast. 

She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen. 
A— A goddess is moved, and a queen is looked by her. 



146 EKGLISH GHAMMAE. 

Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave. 

W. — A soldier, open, bold, and brave is strutted by Tom. 

/. — A soldier is strutted by Tom! William! what 
tremendous strutting ! 

Mr. S. — Moves, looks, and struts are intransitive verbs; 
and goddess, queen, and soldier, predicate nominatives after 
tliem. Of course, they cannot be used as subjects of these 
verbs in the passive voice ; for none but the direct objects 
of transitive verbs can be so used. These two examples are 
enough to show you the absurdity of trying to use intransi- 
tive verbs in the passive voice. 

W. — Must every transitive verb have an object? 

Mr. S. — Every transitive verb in the active voice requires 
an object, either expressed or understood, to complete the 
sense ; as, " I move this chair, I drop the book. I 7'oll the 
ball. I ring the bell." When such a verb is so used as to 
make complete sense without an object it becomes intransi- 
tive ; as, "I move. The book drops. The ball rolls. The 
hell rings." " Some read and winte better than they speah" 
"Thou shalt not Mil Thou sJialt not steal." "Let us eat 
and drinh, for to-morrow we die." 

J. — In each of these sentences is there not an object un- 
derstood to which the action passes ? 

Mr. S. — No particular objects are thought of in these 
sentences, and therefore the thoughts are confined to their 
subjects, and do not follow the actions from agents to ob- 
jects; for the transition of action is unobserved or disre- 
garded. Consequently, there is no transition of thought 
expressed by any of these verbs. 

Some transitive verbs are occasionally used intransitively 
with a passive signification ; as, " The ice melts. The water 
freezes. Maple splits and hums better than beech. The 
rose smells sweet." 

Many verbs that are generally intransitive are sometimes 



ETYMOLOGY. 147 

used as transitive verbs ; as, " They stared him in the face, 
and looked him out of countenance." "The storm has 
lioioled itself to rest." " She smiles the wrinkles from the 
brow of age." "Let me live the life and die the death of 
the righteous." 

Though intransitive verbs are not distinguished by the 
active and the passive voice, yet some of them are now and 
then used in the passive form ; as, " They are gone.'' " He 
is fallen" "All now are fled." Such verbs should be called 
intransitive in parsing. 

R. — Do you ever call a transitive verb an incomplete 
verb, and an intransitive verb a complete verb ? 

3Ir. S. — No: one is just as complete a verb as the other. 
An intransitive verb is sometimes a complete predicate: 
but a transitive verb is only a part of the predicate ; for the 
predicate includes the verb and its object and all their ad- 
juncts, and sometimes consists of five or six parts of speech ; 
as, "John generally lends us the best books in his library." 
The predicate is all the words that we use to express what 
is predicated of a subject. Even an intransitive verb is not 
always the whole predicate, but frequently a very small part 
of it ; as, " This landscape is very beautiful in the spring." 

J. — Is it proper to call verbs predicates ? 

Mr. S. — I think not; ioY predicate is not the name of a 
X:)art of speech, but the name of a part of a proposition. In 
its strict and appropriate meaning it is more properly used 
in logic than in grammar. 

A verb and preposition are sometimes used together as a 
compound transitive verb in tlie passive voice ; as, " He luas 
attended to, he was cared for, he was heard of, he luas 
laughed at, he was smiled on, he urns spoken to, he ivas 
thought of he icas run over." Good writers sometimes use a 
noun as a part of a compound transitive verb in tlie passive 
voice ; as, " The sheep are taken care of by the good shep- 
herd." " On their part he is evil spoken of." 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Change the transitive verbs in these sentences from the 
active to the passive voice, and from the passive to the 
active. 

Earthly happiness is sought by all. The sage pursues it 
in his books and reflections; the savage discerns it in the 
wilderness ; the prince views it sparkling in a crown ; the 
peasant beholds it in abundant crops of grain ; the sailor 
sees it in the ocean ; and the soldier hears it in the stormy 
fight. 

Tlie Lord my pasture shall prepare, 
And feed me with a shepherd's care ; 
His presence shall my wants supply. 
And guard me with a watchful eye ; 
My noon-day walks he shall attend. 
And all my midnight hours defend. 

By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed. 
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed. 
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, 
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned I 



MOODS. 

Though every action is unconditional and real, yet our 
thoughts extend beyond the limits of the actual, and explore 
the vast domains of possibility, desire, necessity, contin- 
gency, hypothesis, and supposition. Many of our thoughts 
spring from imagination : we imagine many actions and 
events that never did exist and never will. As we consider 
the conditions and the circumstances that actions and events 
depend on, our thoughts are modified, and verbs are varied 
accordingly in their form or application to express them ; 
as, " He reads carefully. If he read carefully he will im- 
prove. Read^ and be wise. To read well, we must reud 
naturally." Now take notice how the verb read is varied to 



ETYMOLOGY. 149 

express the different modifications of thought. This kind 
of variation we call mood. 

Mood is a distinction of verbs in regard to the manner 
in which actions and events are considered, and thoughts 
expressed. 

There are five moods : the indicative, the potential, the 
subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. 

The indicative mood indicates the actual occurrence of 
an action or event, or the real existence of a fact. 

The potential mood denotes the possibility or necessity 
of an action or event, or the liberty, power, will, or obhga- 
tion of the subject in regard to it. 

The subjunctive mocd denotes the subjoining of one 
thought to another, so as to represent the action or event as 
conditional, doubtful, or contingent. 

The imperative mood denotes a command, or request, or 
permission. 

The infinitive mood is a certain variation of a verb that 
denotes a dependent thought, and is not limited by number 
and person. 

The thought expressed by a verb in the indicative mood 
is based on the actual occurrence of an action or event, or 
on the real existence of a fact; but in the potential mood, 
on the possibility or necessity of its occurrence or existence, 
or on the hberty, power, will, or obligation of the subject in 
regard to it. A thought may be expressed affirmatively, or 
negatively, or interrogatively, in each of these moods. In 
the indicative mood, we amrm, or deny, or inquire after the 
actual occurrence of an action or event, or the real existence 
of a lact ; as, " Kej^^ys his debts. He is honest. He does 
not pay his debts. He is not honest. Does he pay his 
debts ? Is he honest ? " In the potential mood, we afiirm, 
or deny, or inquire after the possibility or necessity of an 
action or event, or the liberty, power, will, or obligation of 
the subject in regard to it ; as, " He 7nust read. He can 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

read. He must not read. He can not read. Must he read 9 
Can he read ? " 

If you cannot distinguish the potential mood from the 
indicative by the definitions, you can do it by the signs. 
These little Avords, may, can, and 7nust, might, could, looiild, 
and should, are the signs of the potential mood. May and 
might denote possibility or liberty; must, necessity; can 
and could, power ; tuould, will ; and should, obligation : as, 
" The young may die, and the old must die." " You may go 
or stay." " They might have done better." " His hrethren 
could not answer him." " I would not live always." " Should 
a man full of talk he justified 9 " 

E. — Are all these verbs in the potential mood ? . 

Mr. 8. — Certainly. Observe them closely; and you'll 
have no trouble in distinguishing this mood. 

The subjunctive mood is not so easily distinguished. It 
is preceded by if, though, unless, except, lest, that, or ivhether, 
and thus connected to some other mood so as to represent 
the action or event as doubtful, hypothetical, conditional, or 
contingent ; as, " If you will work for me to-morrow, I will 
pay you two dollars." " Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
in him." " We cannot learn, unless we study." " That 
which thou so west is not quickened, except it die." " Es- 
cape to the mountain, lest thou be consumed." " that 
they were wise." " Judge not, that ye he not judged." 
^' Whether it ivere I or they, so we preach." If and that 
are sometimes omitted before the subjunctive mood; as, 
'^Were he good, he would be happy." " See thou do it not." 
In each of these examples, the thought expressed in the 
subjunctive mood is subjoined to another, and cannot stand 
alone. Hence, this mood is called subjunctive. 

A verb in the infinitive mood expresses a concurrent 
thought, united in sense to another without a connective 
and depending on it; as, "I speak not this to condemn you." 
" They died to save their country." " I am ready to he 



ETTMOLOGY. 151 

offered." " To see the nakedness of the land ye are come/' 
The sign of this mood is to, as all of you can see. But it is 
sometimes omitted ; as, " Let me go. See them fiy, and 
hear them sing." 

M. — Has the imperative mood any sign ? 

Mr. S. — No; but you can easily distinguish it. The 
thought expressed by a verb in the imperative mood orig- 
inates in a desire to have the action or event take place, not 
in its actual occurrence, and naturally assumes the language 
of direct address in the shape of a command or request, ac- 
cording to the disposition and authority of the speaker, and 
the character of the person addressed. We are apt to com- 
mand our inferiors, and request our superiors. But Chris- 
tian kindness and humility soften down our natural im- 
periousness, and change commands to requests. The small- 
est child can understand, from our tones of voice and man- 
ner of speaking, whether we intend to command or request. 
The same word, differently spoken, may express a command 
or request ; as, " Come in, boys. Shut the door. TaTce 
your seats. Come in, boys. Shut the door. Take your 
seats." 

H. — You first request, and then command. "When a 
person knocks at the door, and we say, *' Come in," do we 
command or request ? 

Mr. S. — We do neither: we simply give permission. 

So you see that with the same word we may express a 
command or request, or permission. Though the impera* 
tive mood derives its name from imperare, to command, yet 
it is now much more frequently used in requesting than in 
commanding. Men learn from experience, as society im- 
proves, that requests are more effectual than commands. 
Teachers of a kind and gentle disposition generally request 
their pupils to obey their orders ; and secure obedience by 
kindness, affability, and uniform politeness. It is more 
agreeable to human nature to obey requests than commands. 



152 E]Sr Q L I S H GRAMMAR. 

We are created free moral agents, and of course we hate to 
be compelled: compulsion is to us the very essence of 
slavery. Even brutes are far more easily coaxed than 
driven. Dogs and horses that are kindly treated readily 
obey us, through affection more than fear. 

Select the verbs in what I say, and tell me which mood 
each of them is in. 

I throw this ball upon the floor. It bounds and rolls 
across the room, because it is elastic. 

P. — All these verbs are in the indicative mood : throw, 
hound, and roll indicate the actual occurrence of actions ; 
and is indicates the real existence of a fact, which you 
affirm unconditionally. 

The inkstand does not bound, because it is not elastic. 

R. — Does hound modified by 7iot, negatively indicates the 
actual occurrence of an action ; and is modified by 7iot, neg- 
atively indicates the real existence of a fact: the actual 
occurrence of an action and the real existence of a fact are 
unconditionally denied. These verbs are, therefore, in the 
indicative mood. 

Is this ball elastic ? Does it bound ? 

T. — Is indicates interrogatively the real existence of a 
fact; and does bound, the actual occurrence of an action. 
These verbs are, therefore, in the indicative mood. 

Throw" the ball to me. Be careful. If you throw it 
carelessly, it may bound against the window and break 
it. To throw a ball accurately, you must be a skillful 
player. 

J. — Throw is in the imperative mood, denoting a com- 
mand or request ; and so is be : neither of them represents 
an action or event as actually occurring, or a fact as really 
existing; but as commanded or requested. "If 3^ou throw 
it carelessly — " Here throtv is in the subjunctive mood: 
the thought which it expresses is subjoined to other 
thoughts, (expressed by mau bound and break,) so as to 



ETYMOLOGY. 153 

represent the action or event as conditional, doubtful, or 
contingent. 

E. — May lound and hrealc are in the potential mood, 
denoting possibility: they represent the actions or events as 
possible, not as actually occurring. To tliroiu is in the infin- 
itive mood: "it expresses a dependent thought, and is not 
limited by number and person. Must he is in the potential 
mood : it denotes the necessity of a fact, and not its real 
e:dstence.* 

Flowers bloom, birds sing, boys play, and horses run. 

G. — Bloom, sing, play, and run, are in the indicative 
mood. 

If you scare the birds, they will fly away. 

D. — Scai^e is in the subjunctive mood, and will fly is in 
the indicative. 

Can these birds fly faster than the cars can run ? 

F. — Can fly and can run are in the potential mood. 

Get your books, and attend to your studies. 

W. — Get and attend are in the imperative mood. 

Did you tell us to get our books and learn our lessons ? 

N. — Did tell is in the indicative mood ; and to get and 
learn are in the infinitive. 

We have learned our lessons. When shall we recite ? 

R. — Have learned and shall recite are in the indicative 
mood. 

If you- have learned your lessons, you may recite now. 

/. — Have learned is in the subjunctive mood, and 7nay 
recite is in the potential. 

Go into tlie garden and get some peaches. I cannot 
reach them, unless I climb the tree ; and I cannot climb it, 
because it is so high. I am too weak to shake it. Run, 
John, and bring me half a dozen peaches. If you shake the 



* After drilling your pupils in this way a little while, let them select the verhs 
and tell the moods in the following manner. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tree, the ripe ones will fall off. You may find some on the 
ground. I saw one fall just now. If you climb the tree, be 
careful, lest you fall and break your limbs. 

Hear instruction, and be wise, and refuse it not. 

Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

Oh ! that I knew where I might find him! 

Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be un- 
punished. 

Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones. 

If you buy Avhat you do not need, you may soon need 
what you cannot buy. 

Though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and 
though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, 
it profiteth me nothing. 

Cha-rity never faileth: but whether there be prophesies, 
they shall fail ; whether there be tongues, they shall cease ; 
whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away. 

Bid sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue, 
Than ever man pronounced or angel sung ; 
Had I all knowledge, liuman and divine. 
That thought can reach, or science can define ; 
And had I power to give that knowledge birth. 
In all the speeches of the babbling earth ; 
Did Shadrach's zeal my glowing breast inspire. 
To weary tortures, and rejoice in fire ; 
Or had I faith like that which Israel saw. 
When Moses gave them miracles and law : 
Yet, gracious Charity, indulgent guest. 
Were not thy power exerted in my breast. 
Those speeches would send up unheeded prayer ; 
That scorn of life would be but wild desj^air ; 
A cymbal's sound were better than my voice, 
My faith were form, my eloquence were noise. 



ETYMOLOGY. 155 



TENSES. 

Though every action and event that comes to pass is 
present to the observer, yet the thought originating from it 
glances back to its occurrence after it is past. Just so our 
thoughts anticipate what will occur hereafter. Consequently, 
verbs are varied to denote the different periods of time; as, 
" I lurite now, I lurote yesterday, I ^vill write to-morrow, I 
have luritten to-day, I had luritten when he arrived, I shall 
have written my letter to-morrow morning at nine o'clock." 

Grammarians call this kind of variation tense. 

Tense is a distinction of verbs in regard to time. 

There are six tenses : the present, the past, and the fu- 
ture; the perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect. 

The present tense denotes present time. 

The past tense denotes past time. 

The future tense denotes future time. 

The perfect tense denotes the present completion of a 
period of time. 

The past-perfect tense denotes the past completion of a 
period of time. 

The future-perfect tense denotes the future completion 
of a period of time. 

Select the verbs in what I say, and tell which tense each 
of them is in. 

It rains. It rained yesterday. It has rained six hours 
to-day. It had rained two hours when we came to school. 
It w^ll probably rain to-morrow ; and then it will have rained 
every day for ten days. 

R. — Rains is in the present tense, because it denotes pres- 
ent time ; rained and came are in the past tense, because they 
denote past time ; has rained is in the perfect tense, because 
it denotes the present completion of a period of time, con- 
sisting of six hours ; had rained is in the past-perfect tense 



loG ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

because it denotes the past completion of a period of time 
consisting of two hours ; loill rain is in the future tense, be- 
cause it denotes future time ; and ioill have rained is in the 
future-perfect tense, because it denotes the future comple- 
tion of a period of time consisting of ten days. 

You are studying grammar. You have studied it four 
weeks. James said he had studied it two or three years 
when I commenced tliis school. You have advanced very 
rapidly ; and if you persevere, you will be good grammarians 
at the end of this term. I am well pleased with the pro- 
gress you have made. 

Mankind have been running after earthly happiness from 
the days of old, and tliey are still keeping up the chase. I 
have run after it myself. Hoav many have sought it ! but 
how few have found it ! I have defrauded no man. I have 
fought a good fight. I have kept the faith. When he had 
thus spoken, he dismissed the assembly. Then cometh the 
end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God. 
So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and 
this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be 
brought to pass the saying that is written. Death is swal- 
lov/ed up in victory. 

P. — Do not the perfect tense, the past-perfect, and the 
future-perfect, denote the completion of actions or events, 
as well as the completion of periods of time ? 

Mr. S —They do sometimes, but not always, as you can 
see for yourselves by carefully examining the examples that 
I have given you. Has rained, had rained, and will have 
rained, denote the completion of different periods of time, 
but not the completion of actions or events ; for it rains yet, 
and it may rain several hours or days. 

E. — I can't see exactly how to separate the periods of 
time denoted by the past tense, the perfect, and the past- 
perfect. 

Mr. S. — The past tense denotes a period of time that is 



ETYMOLOGY. 157 

now entirely past ; as a minute ago, an hour ago, yesterday, 
last week, last month, last year, etc. The past-perfect de- 
notes a period of past time completed at the time denoted 
by the past tense, and, of course, previous to it. Tlie perfect 
tense denotes a period of time completed at the time of 
speaking ; varying immensely in duration from a minute to 
a century, or even thousands of years. The beginning of 
this period is sometimes quite indefinite, but the end of it is 
always at the present moment, though the actions or events 
may have token place some time before or at intervals; as, 
"I have lost my knife. I have seen him a thousand times. 
You have whispered twenty times this week. How often 
have we formed good resolutions to do better ! and how often 
have they been forgotten T' 

J. — How^ can the time denoted by the perfect tense be 
completed at the present moment, if it denotes what has 
been done in a period of time not yet entirely past ; as, to- 
day, this week, this year, etc. ? 

Mr, S. — It is not, like the past tense, separated from the 
present by a division of past time. Therefore it comes clear 
up to the present moment; but it cannot go beyond it 
without embracing future time. All that part of to-day, 
this week, this year, etc., or of any definite or indefinite 
period of present time that has now passed away, is included 
in the perfect tense. When I relate what has been done to- 
day, this week, or this year, good common sense will teach 
you that what I am telhng must have been done before the 
time of speaking, though to-day, this week, or this year, is 
not entirely past. 

J. — Why don't you call this the present-perfect tense ? 

Mr. S. — Because the adjective present is unnecessary to 
distinguish it from the other tenses, and its relation to the 
present time, like that of the past tense and the future, is 
so well understood that we need not express it. It has been 
called the perfect tense so long, and this name is so well es- 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tablished by good authonty, that it should not be changed, 
unless the new name is decidedly better. 

J. — This tense denotes what is entirely finished at the 
present time. Should it not therefore be called the present- 
perfect ? 

Mr. 8. — So does the past tense denote what is entirely 
past at the present time, and the future tense denotes what 
now is future. Would you therefore call them the present- 
past and the present-future ? It is very improper, as well 
as inconvenient, to encumber the names of any of our tenses 
with useless words. 

Make sentences containing verbs in all the tenses of the 
indicative mood. 

E. — Will you show us how to do it ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly. Answer the question that I ask you. 

What are you doing now ? and what do other people do ? 

J. — We are learning grammar. We are reciting. They 
read, they write, they study. 

What did you do yesterday, last week, or last year ? 

P. — I wrote a letter. I bought a book, and gave it to 
Ruth. I learned my lessons, and recited them. 

What will you do to-morrow, next week, or next year ? 

D. — I will obey the teacher, and avoid whispering ; I 
will study diligently, and learn my lessons. 

What have you done to-da}^, this week, or this year ? 

R. — I have received two letters to-day, and have an- 
swered them. I have attended to my studies every day this 
week. I have learned all my lessons, and recited them cor- 
rectly. I have lost but three days this year. 

What had you done when you came to school ? 

H. — I had written a letter. I had milked six cows. 1 
had eaten my breakfast. I had fed the horses and watered 
them. 

What will you have done to-morrow morning at nine 
o'clock ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 159 

W. — I shall have written a letter. I shall have swept the 
school-house, and I shall have rung the bell. 

What is done now ? 

N. — My slate is broken, and my book is torn. 

What was done yesterday, last week, or last year ? 

G. — Yesterday Mr. Brown was thrown from his horse 
and killed. Last week three men were murdered. 

What will be done to-morrow, next week, or next year ? 

T. — Mr. Brown will be buried to-morrow, next week his 
will will be proved, and then his estate will be divided 
among his heirs. 

What has been done to-day, this week, or this year ? 

F. — Several houses have been burned this year, and new 
ones have been built. 

What had been done when you came to school ? 

M. — The cows had been milked, and the horses had 
been fed. 

What will have been done to-morrow morning at nine 
o'clock ? 

B. — The house will have been swept, and the bell will 
have been rung. 

3fr. S. — By answering these questions, you have illus- 
trated all the tenses of the indicative mood in both voices. 
To exemplify all the tenses of the potential mood, tell what 
you (or any person or thing) may do, can do, or must do ; 
what you might do, could do, would do, or should do ; what 
you may have done or must have done ; and what you 
might have done, could have done, would have done, or 
should have done. 

3f. — It may rain. You may take my umbrella. I can 
do without it better than you can. . We must obey the 
teacher. 

ff. — I could not come to school yesterday. I thought I 
would come ; but mother said I should stay at home, be- 
cause she was afraid it might rain before I could get here. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. — Some of the boys must have broken this window. 
Henry may have done it with his ball. 

R. — We might have studied more diligently, and then 
we could have learned our lessons thoroughly. 

31r. S. — You may now illustrate the tenses of the sub- 
junctive mood. By placing if, except, unless, lest, or whether, 
before a verb in the indicative or potential mood, you can 
change the mood to the subjunctive. 

G. — If we study, we shall learn. We cannot learn, unless 
we study. How can we study, except we can read ? If we 
cannot read, we cannot study. If I had a pen, I would 
write. 

D. — If we could not read or write, we would be but 
little better than savages. 

P.— If James has broken my slate, he must get me an- 
other. I will excuse him for breaking my old slate, if he 
will buy me a new one. If he would mend it, I would not 
ask him for another. He would, if he could. If he had 
been careful, he would not have broken it. He will not tell 
•whether he has broken it or not. I will say no more about 
it, lest he be offended. 

J. — Does not though require the subjunctive mood 
after it ? 

Mr. S. — TJiough may be follow^ed by the indicative or 
the potential mood, as well as the subjunctive; as, "I 
cannot justify his conduct, though I am his friend." 
"Though we ca7i not hel^o the dead, we may comfort the 
mourners." * 

What is habitual or customary, and also immutable 
truths and relative facts, are generally expressed in the 

* Let your pupils tell the mood and tense of every verb in these examples. 
Then let them speak or write original sentences like these, and tell the mood and 
tense of every verb they use. To make this exercise more natural, easy, and 
agreeable, let them occasionally tell the moods and tenses of all the verbs they use 
in common conversation. Whilo some are talking others can select every vei*b 
they use, and tell its mood and tense. 



ETYMOLOGY 161 

present tense ; as, " He preaches twice a week." " She 
visits ns very often." " The whole is equal to all its parts." 
" He is kind when he is sober." " When the earth is dark 
with tempests, when thunders roll and hghtnings /7^, thou 
loolcest in thy beauty from the sky, and lavgliest at the 
storm." " One generation passeth, and another cometli.^^ 

*' Another race the following spring supplies. 
They fall successive, and successive rise." , 

This tense is sometimes substituted for the past tense, 
representing past actions or events as if they were present 
and actually taking place before our eyes ; as, 

*' They tug, they strain ; — down, down they go. 
The Gael above, Fitz-James below." 

This tense preceded by wJie7i, before, after, till, or as soon 
as, is often used to express future actions or events ; as, " I 
will go and see him before I die." 

The perfect tense is sometimes substituted for the future- 
perfect ; as, '^ When you have read these books, I will send 
you the others." 

The present, past, and future tenses may be used either 
definitely or indefinitely in regard to time and action. 
When they denote customs or habits, and not individual 
acts, they are applied indefinitely ; as, " Ke feeds the hungry, 
clothes the naked, visits the forsaken, and attends to the 
neglected." " The old Romans governed by benefits more 
than by fear." "I shall hereafter employ my time more 
usefully." These verbs are not confined to individual 
actions, nor to any precise points of present, past, or future 
time. But v/hen particular individual actions are expressed, 
and the precise points of time are specified, the tenses are 
used definitely; as, "John is wallcing in the garden. I 
wrote a letter yesterday. I ivill write to-morrow." In the 
former examples we express general truths, in the latter we 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

express specific facts. A general truth consists of several 
specific facts condensed into a single comprehensive thought. 
In early childhood we begin to generalize our thoughts by 
observation and reflection, and to express them in general 
terms ; as, " Cats scratch, and dogs bite." Hoav many indi- 
vidual acts of scratching and biting we must see in this, 
that, and the other cat and dog, before we have such com- 
prehensive thoughts ! Birds fly, fish swim, beasts walk, lions 
roar, grass gTows, and flowers bloom, are general truths. 
These verbs do not express individual acts, but comprehen- 
sive thoughts. 

Time has been divided into centuries, years, months, 
weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds ; each of which 
may be regarded as a present, past, or future period. But 
in forming tenses, we divide it into nameless little portions. 
Every day, hour, and minute, has its present, past, and 
future. What I do now v/as future but an instant ago, and 
in the twinkling of an eye it will be past. Sometimes the 
present, past, and future are contained in less than half a 
minute. Give me an example. 

W. — I will tear this paper. I am tearing it. Did you 
see me tear it ? I tore it into half a dozen pieces. 

3fr. S. — The present is the smallest part of time imagin- 
able, aptly termed the space between two thoughts. It is a 
passing moment, constantly eluding the all-devouring past, 
and treading on the heels of the ever-fleeting future, and 
though swallowed up and perishing continually, yet rising 
every instant from its ashes Phoenix-like, it lives forever one 
eternal now. The present fleeting moment is the radiating 
point of thought and action, in whicli all our knowledge is 
acquired, and all our work is done, and around which the 
innumerable series of years eternally revolve. It is all the 
time we have : the past is gone forever, and the future we 
can never overtake. On what a little speck of time hang 
everlasting destinies! 



ETYMOLOGY. 163 

Seize, mortals, seize the transient hour ; 

Improve each moment as it flies : 
Life's a short summer ; man's a flower : 

He dies — alas ! how soon he dies ! 

" I will not let thee go, except thou bless me." 

Thus saying-, wrestle with each winged hour ; 
Hold fast, though pleasure's wanton train caress thee: 

This is the angel that can give thee power 
To conquer, though he seems a child of air. , 

Without a blessing never let him go. 
And then a crown of glory thou slialt wear : 

The victor's crown on them that hold him he'll bestow. 

How have men compassed immortal achievements ? 

How have they molded the world to their will ? 
'Tis that 'midst dangers, and woes, and bereavements, 

" Never give up," was their principle still.* 



PARTICIPLES. 

H. — Have verbs any other variations ? 

Mr, S. — Yes : they have another kind of variations very 
nearly alhed to infinitives, to express collateral thoughts that 
are united in sense without connectives to those expressed 
by other verbs ; as, " He went on his way rejoicing." " She 
weeps like an April shower, smiling through her tears.'' 
"The birds flew about, astonished; the beasts ran howling 
from the hills." '^Sitting down, they watched him there." 
" United, we stand ; divided, we fall." " I saw him lying on 
the ground severely wounded^ "The flower of love lies 
Heeding/^ '■^Having lived a virtuous life, she died without 
regret — regretted by all." " 'Tis the last rose of summer, 
left blooming alone." 

Such variations of verbs we call participles. 

* Let your grammar class distinguish the moods and tenses of the verbs in 
these sentences, and in 1 Corinthians, chapter 15. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A participle is a certain form of a verb that expresses a 
collateral thought, and is united in sense to another verb 
without a connective. 

There are three participles : the present, the perfect, and 
the past-perfect. 

The present participle denotes an unfinished action or 
event; as, "I saw him ivriti7ig." 

The perfect participle denotes a finished action or event ; 
as, " I have, a letter ivritten by Pope." 

The past-perfect participle denotes the completion of an 
action or event before a specified point of time ; as, " Plaving 
turitten my composition, I went to school." 

Distinguish the present, the perfect, and the past-perfect 
participles in these sentences. 

He leaping up, stood, and walked. Entering into the 
sepulchre, they saw a young man sitting on the right side, 
clothed in a long white garment. Beholding the man that 
was healed standing with them, they could say nothing 
against it. God having raised up his Son Jesus, sent him 
to bless you, in turning away every one of you from his 
iniquities. They were in the midst of the sea, tossed by 
winds, having lost all hope of being saved. Just then Jesus 
was seen coming to their relief, walking upon the waves. 
One day we see carried along the coffin of the smiling in- 
fant, the flower just nipped as it began to blossom. 

There is a fountain filled Avith blood. 

Drawn from Immanuel's veins ; 
And sinners plunged beneath tliat flood, 

Lose all their guilty stains. 

P. — What is a finite verb ? 
Mr. S. — It is a verb that has number and person. 
Infinitives and participles are not finite verbs, because 
they have no number nor person. 
Mention all the variations of verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. 165 

J. — They are voices, moods, tenses, participles, numbers, 
and persons. 

CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of all 
its variations. 

R. — Can all our verbs be conjugated? 

Mr. S. — All but a very few, which are called defective 
verbs and impersonal verbs. 

/. — I have never seen half a dozen verbs conjugated in 
any of the grammars I have studied. 

Mr. S. — The conjugation of each verb in your grammars 
is presented as a model for the conjugation of any other 
similar verb. Now find the conjugation of the verb love in 
your grammars, and I'll conjugate any regular transitive 
verb according to that model. 

B. — Conjugate the regular transitive verb 7nde. 

Mr. S. — While I am conjugating it compare it with the 
conjugation of the verb love, and see how it agrees with the 
model. 

PEINCIPAL PAKTS. 

jRre*. Tense. Fast Tense. Pres. Pari. Per/. Part. 

Rule. Ruled. Ruling. Ruled. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Il^DICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1st pers. I rule, 1st pers. We rule, 

2d pers. Thou rulest, 2d pers. You rule, 

dd pers. He rules ;* dd pers. They rule. 

* Verbs in the third person eingnlar in this tense and the auxiliary has in the 
perfect tense formerly ended in th instead of s ; as, " He ruleth, he hath ruled." But 
thifi form is now obsolete, except in Scripture and the solemn style. 



166 



ENGLISH GEAMMAB. 



Singular. 

1. I ruled, 

2. Thou ruledst, 

3. He ruled; 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We ruled, 

2. You ruled, 

3. Thev ruled. 



FUTURE 

Singular. 

1. I shall or will rule, 

2. Thou slialt or wilt rule, 

3. He shall or will rule ; 



TENSE. 

Plural 

1. We shall or will rule, 

2. You shall or will rule, 

3. They shall or will rule. 



Singular. 

1. I have ruled, 

2. Thou hast ruledj 

3. He has ruled ; 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural 

1. We have ruled, 

2. You have ruled, 

3. They have ruled. 



PAST-PERFECT 

Singular. 

1. I had ruled, 

2. Thou hadsfc ruled, 

3. He had ruled ; 



TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We had ruled, 

2. You had ruled, 

3. They had ruled. 



FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have ruled, 1. We shall have ruled, 

2. Thou wilt have ruled, 2. You will have ruled, 

3. He will have ruled ; 3. They will have ruled. 



POTEISTTIAL MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I may rule, 

2. Thou mayst rule, 

3. He may rule ; 



PRESENT TENSE 



1. I might rule, 

2. Thou mightst rule, 

3. He might rule ; 



Plural 

1. We may rule, 

2. You may rule, 

3. They may rule. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural 

1. We might rule, 

2. You might rule, 

3. They might rule. 



ETTMOLOGT. 167 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have ruled, 1. We may have ruled, 

2. Thou mayst have ruled, 2. You may have ruled, 

3. He may have ruled ; .3. They may have ruled. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have ruled, 1. We might have ruled, 

2. Thou mightst have ruled, 2. You might have ruled, 

3. He might have ruled ; 3. They might have ruled. 

Can and must may be used as auxiliaries in the present 
tense of this mood, and in the perfect tense; and could^ 
would, and sliould, in the past tense and the past-perfect; as, 
" I can rule, I must rule ; I can have ruled, I must have 
ruled ; I could rule, I would rule, I should rule ; I could 
have ruled," etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I rule, 1. If we rule, 

2. If thou rule, 2. If you rule, 

3. If he rule ; 3. If they rule. 

As this tense denotes future time with shall or should 
understood, it may with strict propriety be called the ellip- 
tical future. The other tenses have the same form as in the 
indicative mood, except the future-perfect. 

IMPEKATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Rule, or Rule thou ; 2. Rule, or Rule ye. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To rule. To have ruled. 



168 ENGLISH GRA MM AE. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Ruling, Ruled. HaviDg ruled. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
Il^DICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am ruled, 1. We are ruled, 

2. Thou art ruled, 2. You are ruled, 

3. He is ruled ; 3. Tliey are ruled. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was ruled, 1. We were ruled, 

2. Thou wast ruled, 2. You were ruled, 

3. He was ruled; 3. They were ruled. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be ruled, 1. We shall or will be ruled, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 2. You shall or will be ruled, 

3. He shall or will be ruled ; 3. They shall or will be ruled. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been ruled, 1. We have been ruled, 

2. Thou hast been ruled, 2. You have been ruled, 

3. He has been ruled ; 3. They have been ruled. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had- been ruled, 1. We had been ruled, 

2. Thou hadst been ruled, 2. You had been ruled, 

3. He had been ruled ; 3. They had been ruled. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been ruled, 1. We shall have been ruled, 

2. Thou wilt have been ruled, 2. You will have been ruled, 

3. He will have been ruled ; 3. They will have been ruled. 



ETYMOLOGY. 169 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I may be ruled, 
Thou mayst be ruled. 
He may be ruled ; 


Plural. 

1. We may be ruled, 

2. You may be ruled, 

3. They may be ruled. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


PAST 

Singular. 
I might be ruled. 
Thou miglitst be ruled. 
He might be ruled ; 


TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We might be ruled, 

2. You might be ruled, 

3. They might be ruled. 



PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been ruled, 1. We may have been ruled, 

2. Thou mayst have been ruled, 2. You may have been ruled, 

3. He may have been ruled ; 3. They may have been ruled. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been ruled, 1. We might have been ruled, 

2. Thou miglitst have been ruled, 2. You might have been ruled, 

3. He might have been ruled ; 3. They might have been ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. If I be ruled, 1. If we be ruled, 

2. If thou be ruled, 2. If you be ruled, 

3. If he be ruled ; 3. If they be ruled. 

This may be properly called the elliptical future tense. 

When a verb in the subjunctive mood denotes present 
time, it has the same form as in the present tense of the 
indicative ; as, " If I «w ruled, if thou art ruled, if he is 
ruled, if we are ruled," etc. 

" If I am right, thy grace impart. 
Still in the right to stay ; 
If I am wrong, O teach my heart 
To find that better way." 

8 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Tlural. 

1. If I were ruled, 1. If we were ruled, 

2. If thou wert ruled, 2. If you were ruled, 

3. If he were ruled ; 3. If they were ruled. 

This is the form of the past tense indefinite ; which is 
so called, because, like the Greek aorist, it denotes present, 
past, or future time. The form of the past tense definite is 
the same in the subjunctive mood as in the indicative. The 
other tenses of the subjunctive mood are similar in form to 
the corresponding tenses of the indicative, except the future- 
perfect, which requires sliall instead of will in the second 
and the third person. Now repeat these tenses of the indica- 
tive mood with if prefixed, and you will put them into the 
subjunctive ; thus. 





FUTURE 


'I'ENSE. 




Singular. 


PluraX. 


1. 


If I shall or will be ruled, 


1. If we shall or will be ruled, 


2. 


If thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 


2. If you shall or will be ruled, 


3. 


If he shall or will be ruled ; 


8. If they shall or will be ruled. 




PERFECT 


TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1, 


If I have been ruled, 


1. If we have been ruled, 


2. 


If thou hast been ruled. 


2. If you have been ruled. 


3. 


If he has been ruled ; 


3. If they have been ruled. 




PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If I had been ruled. 


1. If we had been ruled. 


2. 


If thou hadst been ruled, 


2. If you had been ruled. 



3. If he had been ruled ; 3. If they had been ruled. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been ruled, 1. If we shall have been ruled, 

2. If thou shalt have been ruled, 2. If you shall have been ruled, 

3. If he shall have been ruled ; 3. If they shall have been ruled. 

The potential mood may likewise be converted into the 



ETYMOLOGY. 171 

subjunctive; as, "If he can be ruled, if he could be ruled," 
etc. 

IMPEKATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plvral. 

2. Be ruled, or 2. Be ruled, or 

Be thou ruled ; * Be ye ruled. 

II^FIJSriTIYE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be ruled. To have been ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Being ruled. Ruled. Having been ruled. 

R. — Conjugate the irregular intransitive verb to he, 
Mr. S. — We have used it as an auxiliary to help conju- 
gate rule through all the moods and tenses in the passive 
voice. Just take away the perfect participle rided, and see 
what we shall have left. 

R.—O ! I see ! There is nothing left but he conjugated 
as a principal verb through all the moods and tenses. 





PEIl^CIPAL PARTS. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. Pres. Part. 


Perf Part. 


Be. 


Was. Being. 


Been. 



i:n^dicatiye mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ; 3. They are. 

* To emphasize a command or request, we use the auxiliary do with verbs in 
the imperative mood ; as, " Do rule, do thou rule ; Do he ruled, do thou be ruled." 
This is properly called the emphatic form of the imperative mood. In the common 
form do is omitted. 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was ; 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 



FUTURE 

Singular. 

1. I shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 



TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We shall or will be, 

2. You shall or will be, 

3. They shall or will be. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


PERFECT 

Singular. 
I have been. 
Thou hast been. 
He has been ; 


TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 
I had been, 1. We had been, 
Thou hadst been, 2. You had been. 
He had been; 3. They had been. 



FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 



pote:^tial mood. 



Singular. 

1. I may be, 

2. Thou mayst be. 

3. He may be ; 



Singular. 

1. I might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 
8. He might be ; 



PRESENT TENSE 



Plural. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 

3. They might be. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



173 



PERFECT 
Singular. 

1. I may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 

3. He may have been ; 



TENSE. 

Plural 

1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 

3. They may have been. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plnral. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be; 



Singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were : 



PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1 . If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 

FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall or will be, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be, 

3. If he shall or will be ; 



Plural. 

1. If we shall or will be, 

2. If you shall or will be, 

3. If they shall or will be. 



Singular. 

1. If I have been, 

2. If thou hast been 
8. If he has been ; 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been, 
, 2. If you have been, 

3. If they have been. 



PAST-PERFECT 
Singular. 

1. If I had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 

3. If he had been : 



TENSE. 
Plural. 

1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 

3. If they had been. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been, 1. If we shall have been, 

2. If thou shalt have been, 2. If you shall have been, 
8. If he shall have been ; 3. If they shall have been. 



IMPEEATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

3. Be, or Be thou ; 2. Be, or Be ye. 



IJ^FIKITIYE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be. To have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 

Compare the conjugation of this verb with the passive 
voice of the regular transitive verb ride, and see wherein 
they differ. 

B. — I can see no difference, except the addition of the 
perfect participle 7^ulecl. 

Mr. S. — The passive voice of a transitive verb is formed 
by adding its perfect participle to the intransitive verb be in 
all its variations. 

P. — Conjugate the irregular transitive verb see in the 
passive voice. 

Mr. S. — While I am conjugating it compare it with the 
conjugation of be, and see how easily it is conjugated. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Pres. Part. Perf. Part 

See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 



ETYMOLOGY. 176 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
IJSDICATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am seen, 1. We are seen, 

2. Thou art seen, 2. You are seen, 

3. He is seen ; 3. They are seen. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was seen, 1. We were seen, 

2. Thou wast seen, 2. You were seen, 

3. He was seen ; 3. They were seen. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be seen, 1. We shall or will be seen, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be seen, 2. You shall or will be seen, 

3. He shall or will be seen ; 3. They shall or will be seen. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been seen, 1. We have been seen, 

2. Thou hast been seen, 2. You have been seen, 

3. He has been seen ; 3. They have been seen. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been seen, 1. We had been seen, 

2. Thou hadst been seen, 2. You had been seen, 

3. He had been seen ; 3. They had been seen. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been seen, 1. We shall have been seen, 

2. Thou wilt have been seen, 2. You will have been seen, 

3. He will have been seen ; 3. They will have been seen. 

POTEISTTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can be seen, 1. We can be seen, 

2. Thou canst be seen, 2. You can be seen, 

3. He can be seen ; 8. They can be seen. 



176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST 
Singular. 

1. I could be seen, 

2. Thou couldst be seen, 

3. He could be seen : 



TENSE. 

Hural. 

1. We could be seen, 

2. You could be seen, 

3. Tliey could be seen. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Sinfftiiar, 

1. I can have been seen, 

2. Thou canst have been seen, 

3. He can have been seen ; 



Plural. 

1. We can have been seen, 

2. You can have been seen, 

3. They can have been seen. 



Can is seldom used in this tense by good speakers and 
writers. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could have been seen, 1. We could have been seen, 

2. Thou couldst have been seen, 2. You could have been seen, 
8. He could have been seen ; 3. They could have been seen. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 



Singular. 

1. If I be seen, 

2. If thou be seen, 
3 If he be seen : 



Singular. 

1. If I were seen, 

2. If thou wert seen, 

3. If he were seen ; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we be seen, 

2. If you be seen, 

3. If they be seen. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we were seen, 

2. If you were seen, 

3. If they were seen. 



FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. HuralU 

1. If I shall or will be seen, 1. If we shall or will be 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be seen, 2. If you shall or will be seen, 

3. If he shall or will be seen ; 3. If they shall or will be seen. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17? 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been seen, 1. If we have been seen, 

3. If thou hast been seen, 2. If you have been seen, 

3. If he has been seen ; 3. If they have been seen. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been seen, 1. If we had been seen, 

2 If thou hadst been seen, 2. If you had been seen, 

3. If he liad been seen ; 3. If they had been seen. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been seen, 1. If we shall have been seen, 

2. If thou shalt have been seen, 2. If you shall have been seen, 

3. If he shall have been seen ; 3. If they shall have been seen. 

IMPEKATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be seen, or 2. Be seen, or 

Be thou seen. Be ye seen, 

Il^riNITIYE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be seen. To have been seen. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Being seen. Seen. Having been seen.* 

In conjugating a verb in the passive voice we use the 
perfect participle in every mood and tense ; but in the active 
voice we use it only in the perfect, the past-perfect, and the 
future-perfect tense. This you all can see by careful obser- 
vation, as we conjugate the irregular transitive verb write. 

* Let your pupils conjugate this verb in the active voice. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

PEINCIPAL PAKTS. 

Pres. Tense. Past Tense. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 

Write. Wrote. Writing. Written. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
USTDICATIVE MOOD. 





PRESENT 


TENSE. 


Singtdar. 




Plural. 


1. I write, 




1. We write. 


2. Thou writest, 




2. You write, 


3. He writes ; 




3. They write. 




PAST TENSE. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


1. I wrote, 




1. We wrote, 


2. Thou wrotest, 




2. You wrote. 


3. He wrote ; 




3, They wrote. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will write, 1. We shall or will write, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt write, 2. You shall or will write, 

3. He shall or will write ; 3. They shall or will write. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have written, 1. We have written, 

2. Thou hast written, 2. You have written, 

3. He has written ; 3. They have written. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had written, 1. We had written, 

2. Thou hadst written, 2. You had written, 

3. He had written ; 3, They had written. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have written, 1. We shall have written, 

2. Thou wilt have written, 2. You will have written, 
8. He will have written ; 3. They will have written. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



179 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I must write, 

2. Thou must write, 

3. He must write ; 

Singular. 

1. I would write, 

2. Thou wouldst write, 

3. He would write ; 



PRESENT TENSE. 

HuraL 

1. We must write, 

2. You must write, 

3. They must write, 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We would write, 

2. You would write, 

3. They would write. 



PERFECT 
Singular. 
I must have written. 
Thou must have written, 
He must have written ; 



TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We must have written, 

2. You must have written, 

3. They must have written. 



PAST-PERFECT 

Singular. 
I would have written, 1. 

Thou wouldst have written, 2. 



TENSE. 

Plural. 
We would have written. 
You would have written, 



3. He would have written ; 



3. They would have written. 



Singular. 
1. If I write, 
S. If thou write, 
3. If he write ; 

Singular. 

1. If I wrote, 

2. If thou wrotest, 

3. If he wrote ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 



1. If we write, 

2. If you write, 

3. If they write. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we wrote, 

2. If you wrote, 

3. If they wrote. 



FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. -P^^^«^- 

1. If I shall or will write, 1. If we shall or will write, 

2. If thou Shalt or wilt write, 2. If you shall or will write, 
8. If he shall or wiU write ; 3. If they shall or will write. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
lingular. Fturcd. 

1. If I have written, 1. If we have written, 

2. If thou hast written, 2. If you have written, 

3. If he has written ; 3. If they have written. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Hural. 

1. If I had written, 1. If we had written, 

2. If thou hadst written, 2. If you had written, 

3. If he had written ; 3. If they had written, 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have written, 1. If we shall have written, 

2. If thou shalt have written, 2. If you shall have written, 

3. If he sliall have -written ; 3. If they shall have written. 

IMPEEATIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Write, or Write thou ; 2. Write, or Write ye. 

IKFINITIYE MOOD. 

Present Teme. Perfect Tense. 

To write. To have written. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Writing. Written. Having written. 

The conjugation of these verbs will serve as models for 
conjugating any verb afiBrmatively in the common form. 
I will now present a model for conjugating verbs in the 
progressive form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2. Thou art writing, 2. You are writing, 

3. He is writing ; 3. They are writing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 181 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was writing, 1. We were writing, 

2. Thou wast writing, 2. You were writing, 

3. He was writing ; 3. They were writing. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be writing, 1. We shall or will be writing, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be writing, 2. You shall or will be vvriting, 

3. He shall or will be writing ; 3. They shall or will be writing. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been writing, 1. We have been writing, 

2. Thou hast been writing, 2. You have been writing, 

3. He has been writing ; 3. They have been writing. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been writing, 1. We had been writing, 

2. Thou hadst been writing, 2. You had been writing, 

3. He had been writing ; 3. They had been writing. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been writing, 1, We shall have been writing, 

2. Thou wilt have been writing, 2. You will have been writing, 
8. He will have been writing ; 3. They will have been writing. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I must be writing, 1. We must be writing, 

2. Thou must be writing, 2. You must be writing, 

3. He must be writing ; 8. They must be writing. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I should be writing, 1. We should be writing, 

2. Thou shouldst be writing, 2. You should be writing, 

3. He should be writing ; 3. They should be writing. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singula}: Plural. 

1. I must have been writing, 1. We must have been writing, 

2. Thou must have been writing, 2. You must have been writing, 

3. He must have been writing ; 3. They must have been writing. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I should have been writing, 1. We should have been writing, 

2. Thou shouldst have been writing, 2. You should have been writing, 

3. He should have been writing ; 3. They should have been writing. 

SUBJUl^CTIYE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be writing, 1. If we be writing, 

2. If thou be writing, 2. If you be writing, 

3. If he be writing ; 3. If they be writing. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were writing, 1. If we were writing, 

2. If thou wert writing, 2, If you were writing, 

3. If he were writing ; 3. If they were writing. 

The other tenses of this mood, except the future-perfect, 
have the same form as the corresponding tenses of the 
indicative. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be writing, or Be thou writing. 2. Be writing, or Be ye writing, 

IlsrFIJSriTIYE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Perfect Tense. 

To be writing. To have been writing. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 
Having been writing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 183 

Here you see the present participle of write is added to 
the conjugation of he through all the moods and tenses, just 
as the perfect participle is added to form the passive voice. 

E. — Why do you call tliis the progressive form ? 

Mr. S. — Because it denotes the progression or contin- 
uance of an action. A verb whose signification implies 
continuance in the common form does not admit this form ; 
as, remember, knoiu, love, hate. It is applied to suph verbs 
as denote individual acts, and not to those that express gen- 
eral truths. 

R. — Can we conjugate l)e in the progressive form ? 

Mr. 8. — We cannot do it without doubling the verb ; as, 
" He is being, he was being, he will be being/' etc. Nobody 
ever uses such expressions. But it has become quite fash- 
ionable to double this verb before a perfect participle ; as, 
" The house is being built." " The goods are being sold." 
The impropriety of such expressions will appear, if we un- 
dertake to conjugate the verbs in this form ; as, " They are 
being sold, they were being sold, they will be being sold, 
they have been being sold," etc. 

Since we cannot properly conjugate te in the progress- 
ive form as a principal verb, it should not be used in this 
form as an auxiliary. This mode of expression is an inno- 
vation not sufficiently sanctioned by our best speakers and 
writers. Most of them avoid it, and use the present parti- 
ciple of transitive verbs intransitively in a passive sense 
instead of it, or express their thoughts in the active voice ; 
as, " The house is building, or we are building the house ;" 
"The bells are ringing, or they are ringing the bells;" 
"They are printing the books;" "We are educating our 
children;" "The heart of the minstrel is breaking;" 
instead of " The house is being built ; " " The bells are 
beiug rung ; " " The books are being printed ; " " Our chil- 
dren are being educated ; " " The heart of the minstrel is 
being broken." 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

n. — Conjugate the regular intransitive verb umlk. 
Mr. S. — I will give you a general view of all its moods 
and tenses, which is commonly called a synopsis. 

peijstcipal parts. 

Walk, walked, walking, walked. 

Indicative Mood : I walk, I walked, I shall or will walk, I have 
walked, I had walked, I shall have walked. Potential Mood : I may, 
can, or must walk ; I might, could, would, or should walk ; I may, can, 
or must have walked ; I might, could, would, or should have walked. 
Subjunctive Mood : If I walk, if I walked, if I shall or will walk, if I 
have walked, if I had walked, if I shall have walked. Imperative 
Mood : Walk. Infinitive Mood : To walk, to have walked. Parti- 
ciples : Walking, walked, having wallied. 

B. — Why don't yon conjugate it in the passive voice ? 

3Ir. S. — Because it is an intransitive verb : intransitive 
verbs have no voices. They generally have the form of 
transitive verbs in the active voice ; but some of them occa- 
sionally assume the passive form ; as, " They are go7ie" 
" How are the mighty fallen I " " Thy light is come, and 
the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee." Such verbs, 
though they have the passive form, are never in the passive 
voice. 

I will now give you the synopsis of the irregular transi- 
tive verb drive in both voices, and also in the progressive 
form. 

PEINCIPAL PARTS. 
Drive, drove, driving, driven. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Indicative Mood : I drive, I drove, I shall or will drive, I have 
driven, I had driven, I shall have driven. Potential Mood : I may, 
can, or must drive ; I might, could, would, or should drive ; I may, 
can, or must have driven : I might, could, would, or should have 
driven. Subjunctive Mood : If I drive, if I drove, if I shall or will 
drive, if I have driven, if I had driven, if I shall have driven. Imper- 



ETYMOLOGY. 185 

ative Mood : Drive. Infinitive Mood : To drive, to have driven. 
Participles : Driving, driven, having driven. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Indie. : I am driving, I was driving, I shall or will be driving, I 
have been driving. I had been driving, I shall have been driving. 
Poten. : I may, can, or must be driving ; I might, could, wcnild, or 
should be driving ; I may, can, or must have been driving ; I might, 
could, would, or should bave been driving. Suljunc. : If I be driving, 
if I were driving, if I shall or will be driving, if I have be^n driving, 
if I had been driving, if I shall have been driving. Imper. : Be 

driving. Infin. : To be driving, to have been driving. Part. : , 

, Having been driving. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : I am driven, I was driven, I shall or will be driven, I have 
been driven, I had been driven, I shall have been driven. Poten. : I 
may, can, or must be driven ; I might, could, would, or should be 
driven ; I may, can, or must have been driven ; I might, could, would, 
or should have been driven. Suljunc. : If I be driven, if I were 
driven, if I shall or will be driven, if I have been driven, if I had been 
driven, if I shall have been driven. Imper. : Be driven. Infi?i. : To 
be driven, to have been driven. Part. : Being driven, driven, having 
been driven. 

If you take particular notice of the conjugation of this 
verb, you will see that drive, drove, driving, or driven, is 
used in every mood and tense. These words are, therefore, 
called the principal parts of the verb. They are, indeed, 
but variations of the principal verb. Drive is the root of 
the verb found in the imperative mood, and in the present 
tense of the indicative and the subjunctive, and also in the 
future tense of both tbese moods with shall or loill before it, 
in the present tense of the potential with may, can, or must 
before it, and in the past tense with miglit, could, ivould, or 
should before it, and in the present tense of the infinitive 
with to before it. As it denotes present time when used 
alone, it is called the present tense. Drove is the simple 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

form of the past tense of the indicative and the subjunctive, 
which is sometimes called the preterit. In the common 
form of the active voice, driven is used in the perfect, the 
past-perfect, and the future-perfect tense, with have, had, 
shall have, or tuill have before it, in the indicative and the 
subjunctive mood; in the perfect tense of the potential with 
may, can, or must have before it, and in the past-perfect 
with might, could, would, or should have before it, and in the 
perfect tense of the infinitive with to have before it. In the 
progressive form of the active voice, driving is used in all 
the moods and tenses ; and driven is used in all the moods 
and tenses of the passive voice. Such little words as shall, 
ivill, may, can, must, and have, are called auxiliaries; 
because they are used to help conjugate principal verbs. 

J, — Have we any verbs that cannot be conjugated ? 

Mr. S. — Conjugate shall, may, can, must, ought, and 
quoth. 

J. — I shall, I should ; I may, I might ; I can, I could — 
I can go no further. These are called defective verbs : they 
cannot be conjugated, because they lack some of the princi- 
pal parts. 

Mr. 8. — Some of them are always used as auxiliaries, and 
cannot make complete sense without a principal verb ex- 
pressed or understood. The greater part of our auxiliaries 
are defective verbs. 

With respect to conjugation, verbs are divided into three 
classes; principal, auxiliary, and defective. 

A principal verb is one that can be conjugated through 
all the moods and tenses'. 

An auxiliary verb is one that is used to help conjugate 
principal verbs. 

A defective verb is one that cannot be conjugated 
through all the moods and tenses. 

Here is the synopsis of the irregular intransitive verb go 
in the common form, tlie progressive, and the passive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 187 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Go, went, going, gone. 

COMMON FORM. 

Indie. : He goes, lie went, lie shall or will go, he has gone, he had 
gone, he will have gone. Poten. : He may, can, or must go ; he might, 
could, would, or should go ; he may, can, or must have gone ; he 
might, could, would, or sliould have gone. Suljunc. : If he go, if he 
went, if he shall or will go, if he has gone, if he had gone, if he shall 
have gone. Imper. : Go, Injin. : To go, to have gone. Fart. : Going, 
gone, having gone. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
Indie: He is going, he was going, he shall or will be going, he has 
been going, he had been going, he will have been going. Poten.: He 
may, can, or must be going; he might, could, would, or should be 
going ; he may, can, or must have been going ; he might, could, would, 
or should have been going. Suhjunc. : If he be going, if he were go- 
ing, if he shall or will be going, if he has been going, if he had been 
going, if he shall have been going. Imper. : Be going. Injin. : To be 
going, to have been going. Part. : , , Having been going. 

PASSIVE FORM. 
Indie. : He is gone, he was gone, he shall or will be gone, he has 
been gone, he had been gone, he will have been gone. Poten. : He may, 
can, or must be gone ; he might, could, would, or should be gone ; he 
may, can, or must have been gone ; he might, could, would, or should 
have been gone. Suhjunc. : If he be gone, if he were gone, if he shall 
or will be gone, if he has been gone, if he had been gone, if he shall 
have been gone. Imper. : Be gone. Injin. : To be gone, to have been 
gone. PaQ't. : Being gone, gone, having been gone. 

We have but few intransitive verbs that admit the pas- 
sive form, and the common form of these is general!}^ pre- 
ferred by our best writers. The passive voice of transitive 
verbs is essentially different from the passive form of intran- 
sitive verbs. It is their common form. 

I have presented yon a great variety of models for conju- 
gating verbs affirmatively in all their forms. I will now 
give yon the synopsis of the irregular intransitive verb rise 
conjugated negatively. 



i§8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PEINCIPAL PAETS. 
Rise, rose, rising, risen. 

Indie. : We do not rise, we did not rise, we shall not rise, we have 
not risen, we had not risen, we shall not have risen. Poten.: We may 
not rise, we might not rise, we may not have risen, we might not have 
risen. Subjunc: If we do not rise, if we did not rise, if we shall not 
rise, if we have not risen, if we had not risen, if we shall not have 
risen. Imper.: Do not rise. In fin.: Not to rise, not to have risen. 
Part. : Not rising, not risen, not having risen. 

Here is the synopsis of the irregular transitive verb hear 
conjugated interrogatively. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Hear, heard, hearing, heard. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indie. : Do you hear? did you hear? will you hear? have you 
heard ? had you heard ? will you have heard ? Poten. : Can you hear? 
could you hear? can you have heard? could you have heard? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indie: Are you heard? v/ere you heard? will you be heard ? have 
you been heard? had you been heard? will you have been heard? 
Poten. : Can you be heard ? could you be heard ? can you have been 
heard ? could you have been heard ? 

Verbs can be conjugated interrogatively in no other 
mood than the indicative and the potential. We will now 
conjugate this verb interrogatively and negatively. 

ACTIVE VOICE 
Indie: Do you not hear? did you not hear? will you not hear? 
have you not heard ? had you not heard ? will you not have heard ? 
Poten.: Canyon not hear? could you not hear? can you not have 
heard ? could you not have heard ? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Indie. : Are you not heard ? were you not heard ? will you not be 
heard? have you not been heard? had you not been heard? will you 



ETYMOLOGY. 189 

not have been heard? Poten.: Can you not be heard? could you not 
be heard ? can you not have been heard ? could you not have been 
heard? 

If jou have given close attention to these exercises, you 
have learned that verbs can be conjugated affirmatively, 
negatively, interrogatively, and interrogatively and nega- 
tively, and that some of them can be conjugated in two or 
three different forms; the common form, the progressive, 
and the passive. > 

J. — Cannot verbs be conjugated in the emphatic form ? 

Mr. S. — We sometimes give them the emphatic form in 
the imperative mood, and also in the present and the past 
tense of the indicative and subjunctive ; as, "Do hear. We 
do hear, we did hear. If we do hear, if we did hear." But 
this is not sufficient to be called an emphatic form of con- 
jugation. We also use do and did in the present and the 
past tense to conjugate verbs negatively and interrogatively 
in the familiar style; as, you can see for yourselves. But 
in the solemn style do and did are omitted ; as, " I know 
you not." " Lovest thou me ?" " Heard ye not of lowland 
war ? " 

In the familiar style we conjugate a verb negatively by 
placing not after the first auxiliary through all its variations, 
except the infinitive mood and the participles, in which not 
is placed before the verb or the auxiliaries ; and we conju- 
gate it interrogatively by placing the subject after the first 
auxiliary, and interrogatively and negatively by placing 7iot 
after the subject. Examine the synopsis of rise and hear, 
and see for yourselves. Then conjugate fall, groiv, hnoio, 
and teacli, according to these models.* 

* Drill your pnpils thoroughly in conjugating transitive verbs in both voices, 
alBrmatively, negatively, and interrogatively ; and in conjugating intransitive verbs 
affirmatively negatively, and interrogatively, in the common, the progressive, and 
the passive form. Let them give the synopsis of verbs in every number and per- 
son. Make them tell what auxiliaries are u ed in different moods and tense, till 
they know the mood and tense of every verb they see or hear. 



190 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

P. — I don't understand the application of shall and will, 

Mr. S. — Shall in the first person aDd loill in the second 
and the third simply denote futurity; as, "We shall meet 
again. You will have a pleasant ride. He will be here to- 
morrow." But loill in the first person denotes the will of 
the speaker in regard to himself, and shall in the second 
and the third denotes his will in regard to others ; as, " I 
will not excuse you. You shall not be excused. Excuses 
shall not be admitted." The foreigner who, as it is said, 
fell into the Thames, and cried out, "I will be drowned, 
nobody shall help me," made a sad misapplication of these 
auxiliaries. 

In interrogative sentences, will in the second person and 
shall in the first and the third refer to the will of the person 
addressed ; as, "Will you go ? Shall I go ? Shall he go ?" 
But shall in the second person and tuill in the first and the 
third, in such sentences, simply denote future actions or 
events; as, "Shall you go? Will I go ? Will he go?" 
In the subjunctive mood, shall in all three of the persons 
simply denotes futurity, and 2uill refers to the will of the 
subject ; as, " If I sliall go, if you shall go, if he shall go. 
If I will go, wilLyou go with me ? If you will go, I will 
go." " If they will not work, they shall not eat " When 
will is emphatic, it denotes the will of the subject in the 
second and the third, as well as the first person ; as, " Why 
will ye die ?" " They 7vill not come." In declarative sen- 
tences, will in the first person, and shall in the second and 
the third, are generally used to promise, command, or 
threaten; as, "I will never leave you, nor forsake you." 
" Thou Shalt not steal." " He shall surely die." 

E. — Are any of the auxiliaries ever used as principal 
verbs ? 

Mr. S. — Be, do, have, and tvill, are frequently used as 
such. They are then varied like other principal verbs, and 
also have auxiliaries ; as, " Be kind to all." " It must be 



ETYMOLOGY. 191 

SO." " What thou doest, do quickly." " What shall I do ? " 
"Altamont had a friend. He might have had many." 
" What wilt thou, queen Esther ? " " I would thou wert 
cold or hot." "He has willed his whole estate to you." 
Do is used as an auxiliary for the sake of emphasis, and in 
negative and interrogative sentences ; as, " We speak what 
we do know." "Did you hear me? They did not hear 
me." Do sometimes supplies the place of another verb, and 
makes the repetition of it unnecessary; as, "She reads 
better than he does." 

The past tense of may, can, will, and ^liaU, is miglity 
could, ivoulcl, and should. 

J. — Then why do not luill and shall belong to the present 
tense of the potential mood, as much as tvould and should 
belong to the past tense ? 

Mr. S. — Because they are generally used to foretell future 
actions or events. When they do express present will or 
obligation, some eminent grammarians consider them as 
belonging to the present tense of the potential mood. But, 
as such nice distinctions might perplex you, I have used 
shall and will only in the future tenses of the indicative and 
subjunctive, in conjugating our verbs. 

J. — Mr. Smith, I cannot see the propriety of giving the 
subjunctive mood more than two tenses; the present and 
the past : for when a verb is used subjunctively it has in 
all the other tenses the same form as in the indicative 
mood. 

Mr. S. — Has not every verb but ie the same form in the 
subjunctive mood as in the indicative, in the first person 
singular and every person plural, even in the present tense, 
and in each number and person of the past tense ? 

/. — That is a stubborn fact which no one can deny. 

Mr. S. — Then what becomes of the subjunctive mood in 
these two tenses ? 

J. — It is restricted to the second and the third person 



192 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

singular of the present tense of all verbs but he, and those 
that take the progressive or the passive form. 

Mr. S.—" If I forget thee, Jerusalem 1— " « If you 
love me, keep my commandments." " that they were 
wise ! '"' " If I have made gold my hope — " " If we had 
been in the days of our fathers — " " If ye shall despise my 
statutes — " " If ye will not for all this hearken unto me—" 
*'If you shall have done your duty, you will then receive a 
crown of glory." Which of these verbs are in the subjunc- 
tive mood ? 

/. — Forget, love, and were, 

Mr. S. — Why are not Jiave made, had been, shall de- 
spise, ivill hearlcen, and shall have done, in the subjunctive 
mood ? 

J. — Because they have the form of the indicative. 

Mr. S. — Then why are forget, love, and loere in the sub- 
junctive mood? Have they not the same form as in the 
indicative ? 

J. — These three verbs represent the actions or events as 
conditional, doubtful, or contingent ; and are therefore in 
the subjunctive mood, according to the definition. 

Mr. S. — So do the other verbs in these examples ; and 
according to the definition, they are in the subjunctive 
mood, though they have the form of the indicative. We 
might as well require a different form of the verb for each 
number and person as for every mood and tense. The 
number and person of an English verb depend upon its 
subject; and its mood and tense, upon the modification of 
the thought which it expresses, rather than the variation of 
its form. The truth is, our verbs have very few inflections; 
they do not, like Greek and Latin verbs, assume a different 
form to designate each number and person, mood and tense; 
as you can see at once, if you will take the trouble to com- 
pare the conjugation of an English verb with that of a 
Greek or Latin verb. 



ETYMOLOGY. 193 

J. — Amo, I love, amas, thou loyesfc, amat, he loves; 
amamus, we love, amatis, you love, amant, they love. 

In conjugating a Latin verb we do not use personal pro- 
nouns before it to distinguish the different numbers and 
persons ; for that is done by a variation in its form. But 
we are obliged to use them in conjugating an English verb, 
because it has the same form in different numbers and per- 
sons; and it ma\^ with just as much propriety, have the 
same form in different moods. I see that my position is not 
tenable. So I give it up, and stand corrected. 



<i<^^at=^:i:<^^ 



CONYERSATION YL 

A BRIEF REVIEW OF VERBS AND MODELS FOR PARSING THEM 

IN ALL THEIR VARIATIONS; ALSO PROMISCUOUS 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Mr. S. — We have had a long talk about verbs. Now let 
us have a brief review, and see if you remember what I have 
told you. Select the verbs in what I say, and tell me 
whether they are regular or irregular. 

Look at those birds, and see them fly. 

E. — I look, I looked, I have looked ; I see, I saw, I have 
seen ; they fly, they flew, they have flown. Looh is a regu- 
lar verb, because its past tense and perfect participle are 
formed by adding ed to its present tense. See and fly are 
irregular verbs, because their past tense and perfect partici- 
ple are not formed by adding ed to their present tense, or d 
only. 

M7\ S. — Tell me whether the verbs in these sentences 
are transitive or intransitive. 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The sun wai'ms the earth. The sun shines. 

R. — Warms is a transitive verb, because it expresses a 
transition of tbought: the thought that it expresses passes 
from the sun to the earth. 

Shines is an intransitive verb, because it does not express 
a transition of thought: tbe thought that it expresses is 
confined to its subject, the sun. 

Mr. S. — In "which voice is warms ? 

M. — It is in the active voice, because it expresses a tran- 
sition of tbought from its subject 5?/;^ to its object e^xr/Zi : 
the thouglit passes from the sun to the earth. 

Mr. S. — Express this thought in the passive voice. 

P, — The earth is warmed by the sun. 

Mr. S.—ln which voice is shines ? 

H. — In neither ; for intransitive verbs are not varied on 
account of voice : they have no voices. 

Mr, 8. — In what mood are ivarms and shines 9 

F. — They are in the indicative mood, because each of 
them indicates the real existence of a fact. 

Mr. S. — In what tense are they ? 

W. — They are in the present tense, because they denote 
present time. 

Mr. S. — In what number and person are they ? 

J. — They are in the singular number and third person, 
because their subject sun is. 

Mr. S. — Can you conjugate them ? 

J. — I can give a synopsis of their moods and tenses. 
Their principal parts are warm, warmed, warming, and 
warmed; shine, shone or shined, shining, shone or shined. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mood : The sun wanns the earth, it wanned, it shall or 
will warm, it has wanned, it had wanned, it will have wanned. Po- 
tential : It may, can, or must wann ; it might, could, would, or should 



ET YMOLOG r.^/, 195 

warm ; It may, can, or must have warmed ; it might, could, would, or 
should have wanned. Suljunciive : If it warm, if it warmed, if it 
chaU or will warm, if it has v/armed, if it had Avarmed, if it shall have 
vv-armed. Imperaiwc : Warm. Infinitive : To warm, to have warmed. 
Participles : Warming, warmed, having warmed. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mood : The earth is warmed, it was warmed, it shall or 
will be warmed, it has been warmed, it had been warmed, it will have 
been warmed. Poten. : It may, can, or must be warmed ; it might, 
could, would, or should be warmed ; it may, can, or must have been 
warmed; it might, could, would, or should have been warmed. Suh- 
junctive : If it be warmed, if it were warmed, if it shall or will be 
warmed, if it has been warmed, if it had been warmed, if it shall have 
been warmed. Imper. : Be warmed. Infin. : To be warmed, to have 
been warmed. Part. : Being warmed, warmed, having been warmed. 

COMMON FORM. 

Indie. : The sun shines, it shone, it shall or will shine, it has shone, 
it had shone, it will have shone. Poten.: It may, can, or must shine ; 
it might, could, would, or should shine ; it may, can, or must hav3 
shone; it mi.'^ht, could, would, or should have shone. Siibjunc. : If it 
shine, if it shone, if it shall or will shine, if it has shone, if it had 
shone, if it shall have shone. Imper. : Shine. Infin. : To shine, to 
have shone. Part. : Shining, shone, having shone. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Indie. : Tlie sun is shining, it was shining, it shall or will be shin- 
ing, it has been shining, it had been shining, it will have been shining. 
Poten. : It may, can, or must be shining ; it might, could, would, or 
should be shining; it may, can, or must have been shining ; it might, 
could, would, or should have been shining. Subjunc. : If it be shin- 
ing, if it were shining, if it shall or will be shining, if it has been 
shining, if it had been shining, if it shall have been shining. In/per. : 
Be shining. Infin. : To be shining, to have been shining. Part. : 
, , Having been shining. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING VERBS. 

Mr. S. — Select the verbs in the sentences I give you, and 
tell whether they are regular or irregular, transitive or in- 
transitive, and mention all their variations; the voice of 
each transitive verb, the mood and tense or participle of 
every verb, and the number and person of every verb except 
infinitives and participles : then tell me their principal parts. 

He speaks, and his mandate is obeyed. 

J. — SpeaJcs is an irregular intransitive verb, in tlie indicative mood 
and present tense, singular number and third person. The principal 
parts are, speak, spoke, speaking, and spoken. 

Ts obeyed is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, indica- 
tive mood and present tense, singular number and third person. The 
principal parts are, obey, obeyed, obeying, and obeyed. 

We speak what we do know. 

B. — Speak is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, in- 
dicative mood a?id present tense, plural number and first person. The 
principal parts are, speak, spoke, speaking, and spoken. 

Do know is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice and 
emphatic form, indicative mood and present tense, plural number and 
first person. The principal parts are, know, knew, knowing, and 
known. 

If you love me, keep my commandments. 

M. — Love is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, subjunc- 
tive mood and present tense, plural number and second person. The 
principal parts are, love, loved, loving, and loved. 

Keep is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, plural number and second jjerson. The prin- 
cipal parts are, keep, kept, keeping, and kept.* 

Mr. 8. — Why are love and Iceep in the plural number and 
second person? 



* "Drill your pupils occasioually in conjugating verba till they can conjugate 
every one that they parse. 



EXEECISE IK PAESING. 19) 

M. — Because their subject you is. 

Mr. S. — Why are speak and do Icnoiv \h the plural niimn 
bei* and first person ? 

I\. — Because their subject wc is. 

Mr. S. — -Why is sjjealcs in the singular number and third 
person ? 

/. — Because its subject Jie is: every finite verb must be 
in the same number and person that its subject is. , We can- 
not very often tell the number and person of English verbs 
without observing their subjects; for they have not a varia- 
tion in form, like Latin verbs, for every number and person. 

3Ir. ^S'.— You may now apply a rule of syntax to every 
verb that you parse. 

He appeared walking with countenance erect. 

P. — Ajopeared is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and past tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with its 
subject 7ie, according to Rule 8."' The principal parts are, appear, 
appeared, appearing, and appeared. 

Walking is a regular intransitive verb, in the present participle ; 
relating to he as its subject — Rule 10. The principal parts are, walk, 
walked, walking, and walked. 

To buy food are thy servants come. 

E. — To hvy is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, infini- 
tive mood and present tense ; relating to servants as its subject and 
depending on are come — Rule 9. The principal parts are, buy, bought, 
buying, and bought. 

Are come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the passive form, in. 
dicative mood and present tense, plural number and third person^ 
agreeing with its subject servants — Rule 8. The principal parts aro, 
come, came, coming, and come. 

3fr. S. — Why don't you mention the number and person 
of iDollcing and to hiiy ? 

* Let your pupils repeat every rule that they apply ; and they will soon become 
fiimiliar with all the rules of syntax. 



1G8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E — Because infinitives and participles have no number 
nor person : they are not finite verbs. 

I have not seen the righteous forsaken nor his seed beg- 
ging bread. 

W. — Haxe seen is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
indicative mood and perfect tense, singular number and first person ; 
agreeing with its subject /—Rule 8. The principal parts are, see, saw, 
seeing, and seen. 

Forsaken is an irregular transitive verb, in the passive voice and 
perfect participle ; relating to righteous as its subject — Rule 10. The 
principal parts are, forsake, forsook, forsaking, and forsaken. 

Begging is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice and present 
participle ; relating to seed as its subject — Rule 10. The principal 
parts are, beg, begged, begging, and begged. 

These ought ye to have done. 

E. — Ought is a defective intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and past tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing with its 
subject ye — Rule 8. 

To have done is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
infinitive mood and perfect tense ; relating to ye as its subject and 
depending on ought — Rule 9. The principal parts are, do, did, doing, 
and done. 

The chastisement of our peace was upon him ; and with 
his stripes we are healed. 

Was is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
past tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with its sub- 
ject chastisement — Rule 8. The principal parts are, be, was, being, 
and been. 

Are healed is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, indica- 
tive mood and present tense, plural number and first person ; agreeing 
with its subject ice — Rule 8. The principal parts are, heal, healed, 
healing, and healed. 

The chill dews were falling around me. 

Were falling ia an irregular intransitive verb, in the progressive 
form, indicative mood and past tense, plural number and third person; 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 199 

agreeing with its subject dews — Rule 8. The principal parts are, fall, 
fell, falling, and fallen. 

We had been writing letters to our friends. 

F. — Had been icriting is an irregular transitive verb, in the active 
voice and progressive form, indicative mood and past-perfect tense, 
plural number and first person ; agreeing with its subject we — Rule 8. 
The principal parts are, write, wrote, writing, and written. 

They would have finished their work, if it had not 
rained. 

T. — Would have finished is a regular transitive verb, in the active 
voice, potential mood and past-joerfect tense, plural number and third 
person ; agreeing with its subject they — Rule 8. The principal parts 
are, finish, finished, finishing, and finished. 

Had rained is a regular intransitive verb, in the subjunctive mood 
and past-perfect tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing 
with its subject it — Rule 8. The principal parts are, rain, rained, 
raining, and rained. 

R. — Is not had rained an impersonal verb ? 

Mr. S. — I cannot see any good reason for calling it so. 
It is not without person ; for it is in the third person. We 
have several verbs that are generally confined to the third 
person singular, with it before them, used as a sort of 
expletive subject without any definite antecedent; as, "It 
snows, it hails, it rains, it thunders, it lightens." Some 
grammarians call such verbs impersonal, and others call 
them unipersonal verbs. These nice distinctions are not 
only unnecessary, but troublesome to teachers and embar- 
rassing to learners They are also improper, because such 
verbs are not always in the third person. 

J. — Is not methinhs an impersonal verb ? 

Mr. S. — Methinhs is composed of me and tliinh, and is 
equivalent in sense to / tliinh. It is a double solecism con- 
sisting of the verb tliinhs, which has the form of the third 
person, and the pronoun me in the first person and objec- 
tive case (instead of the nominative) used as the subject of 



200 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

thinks. It is seldom used except in poetry, and will soon be 

obsolete. Meseems is still worse than methinks. It is too 
inelegant to be used by good speakers and writers. 

Have we not power to eat and to drink ? 

Have is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, plural number and first person ; agreeing 
with its subject we — Rule 8. The principal parts are, have, had, 
having, and had. 

To eat and to drink are irregular intransitive verbs, in the infinitive 
mood and present tense ; relating to we as their subject and depending 
on power — Rule 9. The principal parts are, eat, eat or ate, eating, eat 
or eaten ; drink, drank, drinking, drunk or drank. 

I am now ready to be offered. 

Am is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, singular number and first person ; agreeing with its 
subject i^— Rule 8. 

To le offered is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, in- 
finitive mood and present tense ; relating to / as its subject and de- 
pending on readi/~'RvLle 9.* 

Lord, when thy day of dread account 

For squandered hours shall come, 
O, let them not increase the amount, 

And swell the former sum ! 

Shall come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood 
and future tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with its 
subject day — Rule 8. 

Let is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agreeing 
with thou understood — Rule 8. 

Increase and sicell are regular transitive verbs, in the active voice, 
infinitive mood and present tense; relating to them as their subject 
and depending on let — Rule 9. 



* When yoxi have drilled your pupils so that they can readily tell the principal 
parts of all the verbs they parse, let them omit the principal parts, as we do here 
and in the following specimens of parking. 



EXERCISE IK PARSING. 201 

Teacli me in health each good to prize, 

I, dying, shall esteem ; 
And every pleasure to despise, 

I then shall worthless deem. 

TeacJi is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agree- 
ing with its subject thou understood — Rule 8. 

To prize is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive 
mood and present tense ; relating to mc as its subject and depending 
on teach — Rule 9. 

Dying is a regular intransitive verb, in the present participle ; 
relating to /as its subject — Rule 10. 

Shall esteem is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indic- 
ative mood and future tense, singular number and first person ; agree- 
ing with its subject /—Rule 8. 

To despise is a regiilar transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive 
mood and present tense ; relating to me as its subject and depending 
on teach— Rule 9. 

Shall deem is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indica- 
tive mood and future tense, singular number and first person ; agree- 
ing with its subject /—Rule 8. 

/. — Are infinitives and participles verbs ? 

Mr. S. — Yes ; they are verbs iu the infinitive mood, and 
in the participles. They are not distinct parts of speech, 
but variations of verbs. We call them infinitives and parti- 
ciples for the sake of brevity, as we call nouns and pronouns 
in differe^nt cases, nominatives, possessives, and objectives; 
and adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees, 
comparatives and superlatives. 

E. — How can me be tlie subject of to despise 9 Must not 
the subject of a verb be in the nominative case ? 

Mr. 8. —The subject of a finite verb must always be in 
the nominative case ; but the subject of an infinitive or a 
participle is sometimes in the objective case. 

Parse all the verbs in these sentences : 



202 E2TGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Who hath believed our report ? and to whom is the arm 
of the Lord revealed ? 

He was despised, and we esteemed him not. 

But he was wounded for our transgressions, he was 
bruised for our iniquities. 

Seek ye the Lord while he may be found. 

He hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to pro- 
claim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the jjrison 
to them that are bound. 

They are all dumb dogs, they cannot bark; sleeping, 
lying down, loving to slumber. 

If thine enemy be hungr}^, give him bread to eat. 

That which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die. 

I love them that love me; and those that seek me early 
shall find me. 

I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him. 

This man might have been set at liberty, if he had not 
appealed unto Caesar. 

Many of the saints did I chut up in prison, having 
received authority from the chief priests. 

Behold, I show you a mystery: we shall not all sleep, 
but we shall all be changed. 

We find ourselves everywhere upheld by his goodness, 
and surrounded with an immensity of love and mercy. 

In pride, in reasoning pride, onr error lies : 
All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 
Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes : 
Men would be angels, angels would be gods. 
Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell. 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel : 
And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order, sins against the eternal Cause. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 
Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, 
And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 203 

Oh blindness to the future ! kindly given, 

That each may fill the circle marl^ed by Heaven ; 

Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, 

Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, 

And now a babble burst, and now a world. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISER. 

Mr. 8. — You parse the verbs in these sentences very 
"well ; and you could parse the other parts of speech three 
weeks ago. If you remember what you have learned, you 
can tell me the construction of the sentences I give you, 
and parse every word of them. While one is parsing, ail 
the rest of you be critics. Keep a sharp look-out ; be silent 
and attentive. When a word or sentence has been parsed, 
if you discover any error, raise your hands, and then correct 
it. By observing these directions, all of you can learn as 
fast as the one that parses^ and perhaps a little faster ; for 
the listeners are free from all embarrassment. 

We are unprofitable servants. 

R. — We is the subject of cn^e, and servants is in predication with 
we. 

We is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — Rule 1. 

Are is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, plural number and first person ; agreeing with its sub- 
ject ice — Rule 8. 

Unprofitahle is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; be- 
longing to servants — Rule 7. 

Servants is a common noun, in either gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case ; in predication with we — Rule 4. 

It is I myself : handle me, and see. 

E. — It is the subject of is, and /is in predication with it^ and my- 
self is in apposition with I, 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is a personal pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of is — Rule 1. 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing w^ith its 
subject it — Rule 8. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus — Rule 6 : in the first per- 
son and nominative case ; in predication with it — Rule 4. 

Myself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gender 
and singular number ; agreeing with its antecedent Je-sws— Rule 6 : in 
the first person and nominative case ; in apposition with I- — Rule 4. 

Handle is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing 
with ye or you understood — Rule 8. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 6: in the first person and objec- 
tive case ; the object of handle — Rule 2. 

And is a connective ; connecting see to *' handle me "— Rule 13. 

See is an irregular intransitive verb, in the imperative mood and 
present tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing with ye or 
you understood — Rule 8. 

Come ye after me, and I will make you to become fishers 
of men. 

P. — Ye is the subject of come, and me is the object of after; I is 
the subject of will make, and you is the object ; fishers is in predication 
with you, and mea is the object of of. 

Come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the imperative mood and 
present tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing with ye — 
Rule 8. 

Ye is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case ; the subject of come — Rule 1. 

After is a preposition ; expressmg the relation of come to me — 
Rule 11. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, first person, and objective case ; the object of after — Rule 2. 

Andis>2. connective ; connecting " I will make you to become fish- 
ers of men " to " come ye after me " — Rule 13. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, cingular num- 
ber, first person, and nominative case; the subject of will make — 
Rule I. 



EXERCISE I2T PAESIKG. ^'00 

Will make is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, 
indicative mood and future tense, singular number and first person; 
agreeing with /—Rule 8. 

You is a personal pionoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and objective case ; the object of icill make — Rule 2. 

To become is an irregular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood 
and present tense ; relating to you as its subject and depending on will 
make — Rule 9. 

Fishers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in predication with you — Rule 4. 

Of is a preposition ; expressing the relation of fishers to men — 
Rule 11. 

Men is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of the preposition of— 
Rule 11. 

IL — Why are /and me in the masculine gender? 

P. — Because their antecedent Jesiis is in the masculine 
gender. 

H. — Why are ye and you in the masculine gender ? 

P. — Because their antecedents Simon and Andreio are. 
I forgot to mention their agreement. 

Mr. iS.— Good grammarians are very apt to do so when 
they are in haste. 

Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, 
Simon called Peter, and Andrew his brother, casting a net 
into the sea: for they were fishers. And he saith unto 
them. Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men. 

J. — Jesus is the subject of saw, and brethren is the object ; sea is 
tlie object of by, and Galilee is the object of <f; Simon and Andrew 
are in apposition with brethren, Peter is in predication with Simon, 
and brother is in apposition with Andreio ; net is the object of casting, 
and sea is the object of into ; they is the subject of were, and fishers is 
in predication with they. 

He is the subject of saith, and " Follow me, and I v^dll make you 
fishers of men" is the object ; them is the object of unto, and me is the 
object of follow ; I is the subject of will make and you is the object ; 
fishers is in apposition with you, and men is the object of of. 



'^^o E K G L I S H G E A M M A E . 

Jesus is a proper noun in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case; the subject of saw — Rule 1. 

WalJdng is a regular intransitive verb, in the present participle ; 
relating to Jesus as its subject— Rule 10. 

By is a preposition ; expressing the relation of walking to sea — 
Rule 11. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to sea — Rule 7. 
8ea is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; the object of hy — Rule 2. 

Of is a preposition ; expressing the relation of sea to Galilee— 
Rule 11. 

Oalilee is a proper noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of of—RxAe 2. 

SaiD is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and past tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing 
with Jesus — Rule 8. 

2\co is a common adjective, belonging to 'brethren — Rule 7. 

Brethren is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of saic — Rule 2. 

Simon and Andrew are proper nouns, in the masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, and objective case; in apposition with 
brethren — Rule 4. 

Called is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice and perfect 
participle, relating to Simon as its subject — Rule 10. 

Peter is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; in predication with Simon — Rule 4. 

And is a connective ; connecting Andreio to Simon — Rule 13. 

His is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Simon — Rule 6 : in the third 
person and possessive case ; denoting the possession of brother — Rule 3. 

Brother is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; in apposition with Andrew 
—Rule 4. 

Casting is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice and 
present participle ; relating to brethren as its subject — Rule 10. 

^ is a common adjective ; belonging to net — Rule 7. 

Net is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of casting — Rule 2. 

Into is a preposition ; expressing the relation of casting to sea — 
Rule 11. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to sea — Rule 7. 



EXERCISE li^ PARSING. 207 

Sea is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case •, the object of into — Rule 2. 

For is a connective ; connecting " they were fishers " to the pre- 
ceding clause that I have just parsed — Rule 13. 

They is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and j^lural 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent brethren — Rule 6 : third person 
and nominative case ; the subject of were — Rule 1. 

Were is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
past tense, plural number and third person ; agreeing with they — 
Rul- a 

Fishers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; in predication with they — 
Rule 4. 

And is a connective ; connecting the following sentence to the 
preceding — Rule 13. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus — Rule 6 : in the third 
person and nominative case ; the subject of saith — Rule 1. 

Snith is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing 
with he — Rule 8. 

Unto is a preposition ; expressing the relation of saith to tliem — 
Rule 11. 

TJiem, is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and plural 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent brethren — Rule 6 : in the third 
person and objective case ; the object of unto — Rule 3. 

Follow is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing 
with ye or you understood — Rule 8, 

Mz is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Jesus — Rule 6 : in the third 
person and objective case ; the object of follow — Rule 2. 

And is a connective ; connecting " I will make you fishers of men " 
to " follow me "—Rule 13. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 6 : in the first person and nomi- 
native case ; the subject of loill make—RxxlQ 1. 

Will make is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, in- 
dicative mood and future tense, singular number and first person ; 
agreeing w^ith i^Rule 8. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and plural 



208 E ]S G L I S H G r. A 31 M A H . 

number ; agreeing with brethren — Rule 6 : in the second person and 
objective case ; the object of icill make — Rule 2. 

Fishers is a common noun,* in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in apposition v/ith you — Rule 4. 

Of is a preposition, expressing tiiG relation of fishers to men — 
Rule 11. 

Men is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of of — Rule 2. 

Some dryly plain, witliout inyention's aid, 
Write dull receipts bow poems may be made. 

H. — Some is the subject of write, and receipts is the object ; aid is 
the object of icithout, and poems is the subject of rnay he made. 

Some is an indefinite pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of write — Rule 1. 

Dryly is an adverb of manner ; relating to j)lain—R\\\e 12. 

Plain is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging to 
some — Rule 7. 

Without is a preposition ; expressing the relation of write to aid — 
Rule 11. 

Invention'' s is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of aid — 
Rule 3. 

Aid is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of without — Rule 2. 

Write is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, plural number and third person, agreeing 
with some — Rule 8. 

Didl is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belonging to 
receipts — Rule 7. 

Receipts is a common novin, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case; the object of write — Rule 2. 

How is a connective ; connecting '' poems may be made " to " some 
dryly plain, without invention's aid, write dull receipts " — Rule 13. 

Poems is a common noun, in neither gender, j)lural number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of may he made — Rule 1. 

May he made is an irregular transitive verb, in the passive voice, 
potential mood and present tense, plural number and third person; 
agreeing with ^o^ws— Rule 8. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 209 

It is soakers like me, whom you load with reproaches, 
That enable you brewers to ride in your coaches. 

W. — It is the subject of is, and soakers is in predication witli it; 
you is the subject of load, and 2chom is the object ; me is the object of 
Wc^, and reproaches is the object of witli; that is the subject of enable, 
and you is the object ; brewers is in apposition with you, and coaches 
13 the object of in. 

It is a personal pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is — Rule 1\ 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing v^^ith it — ■ 
Rule 8. 

Soalcers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; in predication vv^ith it — 
Rule 4. 

Like is a preposition ; expressing the relation of soalcers to me — 
Rule il. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, first person, and objective case ; the object of like — Rule 2. 

Whom is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, and first person ; agreeing with its antecedent me — Note 8 to 
Rule G : and in the objective case ; the object of load — Rule 2. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and nominative case; the subject of load — Rule 1. 

Load is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, plural number and second person ; agreeing 
with you — Rule 8. 

Witli is a preposition ; expressing the relation of load to re- 
proaches — Rule 11. 

Reproaches is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of icith — Rule 2. 

That is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number, and third person ; agreeing with soakers — Note 8 to Rule 6 : 
and in the nominative case ; the subject of enable — Rule 1. 

Enable is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, plural number and third person ; agreeing 
with ^7i«^— Rule 8. 

Ton is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and objective case; the object of enahle—^xAQ 2. 

Breioers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 



210 ENGLISH G R A M il A R . 

ber, second person, and objective case; in apposition with you— 
Rule 4. 

To ride is an irregular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood 
and present tense ; relating to you as its subject and depending on 
enable — Rule 9. 

In is a preposition ; expressing the relation of to ride to coaches — 
Rule 11. 

To^ir is a personal j^ronoun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, second person, and possessive case; denoting the possession of 
coaches — Rule 3. 

Coaches is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of in — Rule 2. 

Pleased to the last, he crops the floAvery food, 
And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 

T. — Last is the object of to, he is the subject of crops and licks, 
food is the object of crops, hand is the object of licks, and Uood is the 
object of to shed. 

Pleased is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice and per- 
fect participle ; relating to he as its subject — Rule 10. 

To is a preposition ; expressing the relation of pleased to last — 
Rule 11. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to last — Rule 7. 

Last is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of ifc>-— Rule 2. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent lamh — Rule 6 : in the third 
person and nominative case — the subject of crops and licks — Rule 1. 

Crops 2Lm\. licks are regular transitive verbs, in the active voice, in- 
dicative mood and present tense, singular number and third person ; 
agreeing with Jie — Rule 9. 

The and flowery are common adjectives ; belonging to food — 
Rule 7. 

Food is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of crops — Rule 2. 

And is a connective ; connecting •' licks the hand just raised to shed 
his blood " to " crops the flowery food " — Rule 13. 

Tlie is a common adjective ; belonging to hand — Rule 7. 

Hand is a common noun, in neithej gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of licks — Rule 3. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 211 

Just is an adverb of time ; relating to raised — Rule 13. 

Raised is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice and per- 
fect participle ; relating to hand as its subject — Rule 10. 

I'o shed is an irregular transitive verb, in tlie active voice, infini- 
tive nioo.l and present tense ; relating to hand as its subject and 
depending on raised — Rule 9. 

His is a personal pronoun in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with lamh — Rule 6 : in the third person and posses- 
sive case ; denoting the possession of blood — Rule 8. 

Blood is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of to shed — Rule 3. 

J. — Is not last an adjective in this sentence ? 

Mr. S. — It is here nsed elliptically as a noun : there is no 
noun or pronoun expressed or understood to which it be- 
longs, and tlie preposition to has no other object. 

Unblemished let me live, or die unknown; 
Oh ! grant me honest fame, or grant me none ! 

N. — Me is the object of let and also the subject of the infinitives 
lii^e and die ; fame and none are the objects of grant, and me is the ob- 
ject of to understood or the indirect object of grant. 

Unblemished and unknown are adjectives ; belonging to 7ne — 
Rule 7. 

Let is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agreeing 
with tJiou understood — Rule 8. 

3Ie is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and' singular 
number; agreeing with Pope—HvLle 6 : in the first person and object- 
ive case ; the object of let — Rule 8. 

Live and die are regular intransitive verbs, in the infinitive mood 
and present tense ; relating to me as their subject and depending on 
^e^— Rule 9. 

Or is a connective ; connecting " [let me] die unknown " to " un- 
blemished let me live " — Rule 13. 

Oh ! is an exclamation. 

Grant is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agreeing 
with thou understood — Rule 8. 



^VZ EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing witli Pope — Rule 6 ; in the first person and object- 
ive case ; the object of to understood or the indirect object of grant — 
Rule 2. 

Honest is a common adjective, in the positive degree; belonging 
to fame — Rule 7. 

Fame is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; the object of grant — Rule 2. 

Or is a connective ; connecting " grant me none " to " grant me 
honest fame " — Rule 13. 

I^one is an indefinite pronoun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of grant — Rule 2. 

The knave and fool are their own libelers. 

F. — Knave and fool are the subjects of are, and libelers, are in 
predication with knave and fool. 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to knave and fool — Rule 7. 

Knave and fool are common nouns, in the masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of are — 
Rule 1. 

And is a connective ; connecting /oc*^ to knave — Rule 13. 

Are is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, plural number and third person ; agreeing with knave 
and fool — Note 3 to Rule 8. 

Their is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and plural 
number ; agreeing with its antecedents knave and fool — Note 2 to Rule 
C ; in the third person and possessive case ; denoting the possession of 
libelers—EMle. 3. 

Own is a common adjective ; belonging to libelers — Rule 7. 

Libelers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, third person and nominative case ; in predication with knave and 
fool— Rule 4. 

Wliether the charmer sinner it or saint it, 
If folly grow romantic, I must paint it. 

I>. — Charmer is the subject of simier and saint, and folly is the 
subject of grow; 1 is the subject of must paint, and it is the object. 

Wlietheri&Q. connective; connecting "the charmer sinner it or 
saint it" to ''if folly grow romantic, I must paint it"— Rule 13. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 213 

The is a common adjective ; belonging to charmer — Rule 7. 

Charmer is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of sinner and 
saint — Rule 1, 

Sinner and saini are regular intransitive verbs, in the subj unctive 
mood and present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing 
with charmer — Rule 8. 

It is a personal pronoun, used as an expletive representing nothing. 

Or is a connective; connecting saint it to sinner it — Rule 13. 

TjT is a connective ; connecting " folly grow romantic " to *c I must 
paint it "—Rule 13. 

Folly is a common noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of grow — Rule 1. 

Grow is an irregular intransitive verb, iu the subjunctive mood 
and present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with 
folly— Rn\e 8. 

Romantic is a common adjective, in the positive degree ; belong- 
ing to /6>%-Rule 7. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number ; agreeing with Pope — Rule 6 : in the first person and nomi- 
native case ; the subject of must paint — Rule 1 . 

Must paint is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, poten- 
tial mood and present tense, singular number and first person ; agree- 
ing with I- — Rule 8. 

It is a personal pronoun, in neither gender and singular number ; 
agreeing with folly — Rule 6 : in the third person and objective case ; 
the object of must paint — Rule 2. 

^.— Are not sinner and saint transitive verbs? 

J. — Do they express the transition of thoughts ? 

H. — They express the transition of thoughts and actions 
passing from the subject charmer to the object it. 

J. — What does it here represent that can be the object 
of a thought or action ? Pause a moment, Henry, and re- 
flect Can we use these verbs in the passive voice ? 

H. — Let me see. Whether it be sinnered or sainted by 
the charmer, if folly grow romantic, it must be painted by me. 

/. — Henry ! don't provoke the wrath of Pope, by tor- 
turing his language so outrageously. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Call imperfection "^hat thou fanciest such. 

M. — This is equivalent in sense to " Call that imperfection which 
thou fanciest such ;" and as iliat is the object of call, and imjjerfection 
is in apposition with it, and which is the object of fanciest, and such is 
in apposition with it, so ichat, the equivalent of that loMcli, is the object 
of call and also the object of fanciest, and imperfection and such arc in 
apposition with ichat. 

Call is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agree- 
ing with thou understood — Rule 8. 

Im'pcrfeciion is a common noun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in apposition with ichat — Rule 4. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person and objective case twofold; the object of call and also the 
object of fanciest — Rule 2. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
second person, and nominative case; the subject of fanciest — Rule 1. 

Fanciest is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, singular number and second person ; agreeing 
with thou — Rule 8. - 

Such is a demonstrative pronoun, in neither gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; in apposition vfiih. what — Rule 4. 

What we have done makes n.s what we are. 

E. — This is equivalent in sense to " That which we have done 
makes us that which we are." What is the object of have done and 
the subject of makes ; ice is the subject of have clone, and us is the 
object of makes; tchat is in apposition with us and in predication with 
iD8, and ice is the subject of are. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case, and also in the objective ; the sub- 
ject of makes and the object of have done — Rules 1 and 2. 

We is a personal joronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of have done — Rule 1. 

Have done is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, in- 
dicative mood and perfect tense, plural number and first person ; agree- 
ing with ice — Rule 8. 

Makes is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood and present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing 
with what — Rule 8. 



EXERCISE IN PARSIJTG. 215 

Us is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and objective case ; the object of makes — Rule 2. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case, and also in the nominative case ; in 
apposition with us and in predication with idc — Rule 4. 

We is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of arc— Rule 1. 

Arc is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood and 
present tense, plural number and first person ; agreeing with we—' 
Rule 8. 

Mr. S. — You may now tell me the constrnction of the 
sentences I give you, and parse a few of the hard words. 

A friend should bear a friend's infirmities ; 
But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. 

R. — Friend is the subject of sliould liear, and infirmities is the 
object; Brutus is the subject of makes, and mine is the object ; and 
they is the subject of are. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, (equivalent in sense to my infirmities^ 
in the masculine gender, singular number, first person, and possessive 
case in form ; but in neither gender, plural number, third person, and 
objective case in construction ; the object of makes — Rule 2. 

What is mine is thine. 

E. — What is the subject of is, and mine and thine are in predica- 
tion with ichat 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case twofold; the subject of is — Rule 1. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
first person, and possessive case in form ; (denoting the poEsessor ;) 
but in neither gender, singular number, third person, and nominative 
case in construction ; in predication with ichat — Rule 4. 

Thine is a personal pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
K3Cond person, and possessive case in form ; but in neither gender, 
singular number, third person, and nominative case in construction ; 
in predication \vith ichat — Rule 4. 

Many free countries have lost their liberty; and ours 
may lose hers. 



216 ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 

Countries is tlie subject of have lost, and liberty is the object ; ours 
is the subject of may lose, and hers is the object. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, (equivalent in sense to our country,) 
in either gender, phiral number, first person, and possessive case in 
form ; but in the feminine gender, (by personification,) singular num- 
ber, third person and nominative case in construction ; the subject of 
raay lose — Rule 1. 

Hers is a personal pronoun, (equivalent in sense to her Uherty,) in 
the feminine gender, singular number, third person, and possessive 
case in form ; but in neither gender, singular number, third person^ 
and objective case in construction ; the object of may lose — Rule 3. 

If they have kept my saying, they will keep yonrs also. 

H. — They is the subject of have kept, and saying is the object; 
they is the subject of icill keep, and yours is the object. 

Yours is a personal i3ronoun, (equivalent in sense to your say- 
ing.) in the masculine gender, plural number, second jDerson, and pos- 
sessive case in form ; bat in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case in construction; the object of will keep - 
Rule 2. 

J. — Why is yours in the masculine gender ? 
R. — Because its antecedent disciples is in the masculine 
gender. 

Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom 
of heaven. 

W. — Poor is the subject of are, and spirit is the object of in; 
kingdom is the subject of is, and iheii^s is in predication with kingdom, 
and heaven is the object of of. 

Theirs is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and possessive case in form ; but in neither gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, and nominative case in construction ; in 
predication with kingdom — Rule 4. 

Thinking makes what we read ours. 

M.—TJiinkiiig is the subject of makes, and what is the object ; we is 
the subject of read, and what is the object ; and ours is in apposition 
with what. 



EXBECI8E IIT PARSIITG. 217 

Ours is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, first 
person, and possessive case in form ; but in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case in construction ; in apposition 
with what — Rule 4 

You know that you are Brutus that say this. 

JP, — You is the subject of A;rt<>w?, and " that you are Brutus that 
say this " is the object ; you is the subject of are, and Brutus is in 
predication with you ; that is the subject of say, and this is the object. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural niun- 
ber, second person, and nominative case ; the subject of «re— Rule 1. 

That is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number and second person ; agreeing with its antecedent you — Note 8 
to Rule 6: and in the nominative case; the subject of say — Rule 1. 

This is a demonstrative pronoun, in neither gender, singular nuni' 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of say— B.\de 2. 

E. — "Why is you in the masculine gender ? 

F. — Because its antecedent Brutus is. 

E. — Then how can it be plural? Must not you be 
parsed as singular, when it represents a singular noun ? 

J/r. 8. — You is plural in form as much as %oe or tliey, 
and verbs agree with it accordingly, no matter what it rep- 
resents. Like Mr. Brown, I think it is better to say the 
plural is used for the singular by enallage, than to parse you 
as singular. The same may be said of we when it is used 
for I to represent a singular noun; which is sometimes 
done by monarch s, authors, editors, and public speakers. 
But I hope this practice will not be extended to all classes 
of society, and confound the singular and plural of our pro- 
nouns in the first person, as well as in the second. The 
best standard of strict philosophical accuracy in the use of 
pronouns is the Bible. There the singular and plural are 
never confounded : you is never used for thou^ nor loe for /. 

This confounding of the singular and plural is a striking 
instance of the power of custom in perverting language. 
You instead of thou is said to have been first used by cour- 
10 



218 EK^GLISH GRAM3IAE. 

tiers in addressing kings and nobles, representing them 
with all of their attendants. This complimentary form of 
address was soon extended to the common people and ap- 
plied to individuals of every rank. Yoit has now lost its 
complimentary significance, and is on a level with thotif 
which is seldom used in common discourse except by the 
Friends, or Quakers. But as long as iJiou is used in the 
solemn style, in Scripture, poetry, and prayer, it must be 
regarded as the proper form for the singular, and you as 
properly plural. Hence our best speakers and writers use 
plural verbs with youy even when they address a single 
person. 

II. — I can't see how yoic can be plural when its ante- 
cedent is singular. Many good grammarians parse yoic 
as singular when a single person is addressed, because it 
then denotes but one. In conjugating verbs, they use it in 
the singular number instead of thou, which they regard as 
obsolete. 

/. — What excellent grammarians are they to whom 
Scripture, poetry, and prayer, are all obsolete ! 

Mr. S. — Ye or you sometimes includes with the person 
addressed other people of the same family, society, or nation, 
and is plural in sense when only one person is spoken to, in 
the same manner as we includes others with the speaker. 
Christ, addressing the woman of Samaria, says, " Ye wor- 
ship ye know not what : we know what we worship ; for sal- 
vation is of the Jews." Ye is always in the nominative 
case ; but you is now used either in the nominative or ob- 
jective, though originally considered the appropriate form 
for the objective. 

Who reasons wisely, is not therefore wise : 
His pride in reasoning, not in acting, lies. 

T'. — J^o is the subject of reasons and also tlie subject of is; 
pride is the subject of lies, and reasoning and acting are the objects of 
in. 



EXERCISEIN PARSIITG. 219 

Wlw is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case twofold; the subject of 
reasons and also the subject of is — Rule 1. 

Reasoning and acting are verbal nouns, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the objects of in — Rule 2. 

/. — Is ivJio the subject of is 9 Is not 7ie understood be- 
fore who ? 

Mr, S. — We might supply he and parse it as the subject 
of is. But I prefer this method because it shows the con- 
struction of the sentence as it is. 

Idleness is the abettor of every crime, whoever commits 
it; the receiver of all booty, whoever is the thief. 

W. — Idleness is the subject of is, and abettor and receiver are in 
predication with idleness; whoever is the subject of commits, and it is 
the object ; crime and booty are the objects of of; tckoever is the sub- 
ject of is, and thief is in predication with ichoever. 

Whoever is a connective pronoun, in either gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of commits — 
Rule 1. 

Whatever the ancients have left us, or the moderns have 
amassed, is spread before you. 

H. — Whatever is the subject of is spread and the object of have left 
and have amassed ; ancients is the subject of hxive left, and ks is the in- 
direct object ; moderns is the subject of have amassed, and you is the 
object of before. 

Whatever is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case, and also in the objective ; 
the subject of is spread, and the object of have left and hxive amassed — 
Rules 1 and 2. 

To him what lovely scenes appear ! 

His landscape blooms throughout the year. 

Whatever snarling critics say, 

He makes December sweet as May. 

N. — Him is the object of to, and scenes is the subject of appear; 
landscape is the subject of blooms, and year is the object of throvgh- 



S20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

ont; ichatever is the object of sai/, and critics is the subject ; he is the 
subject of makes, and December is the object ; and May is the subject 
of is, understood. 

Whatever is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the object of say — Rule 2. 

All join to guard what each desires to gain. 

E. — AU is the subject of join, and what is the object of to guard; 
each is the subject of desires, and what is the object of to gain. 

Each is a distributive pronoun, in either gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of desires — Rule 1. 

O Thou in whose presence my soul takes delight, 

On whom in affliction I call ; 
My comfort by day, and my song in the night ; 

My hope, my salvation, my all ! 

M. — Thou depends on no other word ; presence is the object of in; 
soul is the subject of takes, and delight is the object ; uliom is the ob- 
ject of on, affliction is the object of in, and / is the subject of call; 
comfort, song, hope, salvation, and all, are in apposition with thou; day 
is the object of by, and night is the object of in. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and nominative case independent — Rule 5. 

Whose is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, and second person ; agreeing with its antecedent tlwu — Note 8 
to Rule 6 : and in the possessive case ; denoting the possession of 
presence — Rule 3. 

Comfort, song, hope, salvation, and aU are common nouns, in 
neither gender, singular number, third person, and nominative case ; 
in apposition with thou —Rule 4. 

Four occupations, agriculture, grazing, lumbering, and 
mining, obtain the raw materials. Cultivating the soil and 
raising useful plants is called agriculture. Kaising domestic 
animals is called grazing. Cutting down the forest trees 
to procure lumber is called lumbering. Getting out valuable 
materials from the earth is called mining ; except getting 
out stones, which is called quarrying. Cultivating the soil 
and raising useful plants we call agi'iculture. Raising do- 



EXERCISE IN PARSIKQ. 221 

mestic animals we call grazing. Cutting down the forest 
trees to procure lumber we call lumbering. Getting out 
valuable materials from the earth we call mining ; except 
getting out stones, which we call quarrying. 

R. — Occupations is the subject of obtain, and materials is tlie ob- 
ject ; and agriculture, grazing^ lumbering, and mining are in apposition 
with occupations. "Cultivating the soil and raising useful plants" 
is tlie subject of is called, and agriculture is in predication with this 
subject. In the active voice ue is the subject of call, and " cultiva- 
ting the soil and raising useful plants" is the object, and agriculture 
is in apposition with it.* 

" Cultivating the soil and raising useful plants " is a sentential 
noun, in neither gender, singular number, third person, and nomina- 
tive case ; the subject of is called — Rule 1. 

Oliver Twist's ninth birthday found him a pale, thin 
child, somewhat diminutive in stature, and decidedly small 
in circumference. But nature or inheritance had implanted 
a good sturdy spirit in Oliver's breast. It had had plenty of 
room to expand, thanks to the spare diet of the establish- 
ment ; and perhaps to this circumstance may be attributed 
his having any ninth birthday at all. Be this as it may, 
however, it was his ninth birthday ; and he was keeping it 
in the coal-cellar with a select party of two other young 
gentlemen, who, after participating with him in a sound 
threshing, had been locked up therein, for atrociously pre- 
suming to be hungry ! 

J. — BirtMay is the subject of found, and Mm is the object, and 
child is in apposition with him ; stature is the object of in, and so is 
circumference. Nature and inheritance are the subjects of had im- 
planted, and spirit is the object, and breast is the object of in. It is 
the subject of had had, and plenty is the object, and room is the ob- 
ject of of; thanks depends on no other word ; diet is the object of to» 



♦ Let your pupils show the construction of the rest of these sentences and 
parse them in the manner here presented. 



2^3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

establishment is the object of of, and circumstance is the object of to ; 
liating is the subject of may be attributed; and birthday is the object 
of having. 

R. — Is not the whole phrase, "having any ninth bh'th- 
day at all," the subject of may be attributed? 

How can having be the subject when it has an object? 
Can it be a noun and a verb at the same time ? 

/. — In becoming a verbal noun, having does not lose its 
regimen ; but retains enough of the nature of a verb to have 
an object, while it is the subject of a verb. Our best speakers 
and writers use participles that have objects, not only as 
subjects of verbs, but also as objects of verbs and prepo- 
sitions, like Latin gerunds. 

Mr. S. — This double construction of participles is con- 
demned by many excellent grammarians, and yet it is sanc- 
tioned by general usage. 

J. — This is the subject of be, and it is the subject of may [be] ; it 
is the subject of was, and birthday is in predication with it ; he is the 
subject of was keeping, and it is the object : cellar is the object of in, 
party is the object of with, gentlemen is the object of of, and who is the 
subject of had been locked ; participating is the object of after, him is 
the object of icith, and threshing is the object of in, and "atrociously 
presuming to be hungry " is the object of for. 

Had had is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indica- 
tive mood and past-perfect tense, singular number and third person ; 
agreeing with it — Rule 8. 

Thanks is a common noun, in neither gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case independent — Rule 5. 

Having is a verbal noun, in neither gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of may be attributed— 'Rule 1. 

Be is an irregular intransitive verb, in the imperative mood and 
present tense, singular number and third person ; agreeing with this — 
Rule 8. 

" Atrociously presuming to be hungry" is a sentential noun, in 
neither gender, singular number, third person, and objective case; the 
object of for— Rule 2. 

Atrociously is au adverb of manner ; relating to presuming — 
Rule 13. 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 223 

' Premming is a regular intransitive verb, in tlie present participle ; 
relating to who as its subject — Rule 10. 

To he is an irregular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood and 
present tense ; relating to who as its subject and depending on presum- 
ing — Rule 9. 

Hungry is a common adjective in the positive degree; belonging 
to who — Rule 7. 

E, — Is he in the imperative mood ? Are not yerbs in the 
imperative mood always in the second person ? 

Mr. S. — They are occasionally in the third person, and 
sometimes in the first person plural. Examine these sen- 
tences and see for yourselves. 

The Lord be with you. The Lord bless thee. 

Come we that love the Lord. 

Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms. 

P. — Lord is the subject of he, and you is the object of with. Lord 
is the subject of hless, and thee is the object. We is the subject of 
come ; thai is the subject of love, and Lord is the object. He is the 
subject of fall, that is the subject of iniist \_fall\, and arms is the ob- 
ject of heneath. 

Come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the imperative mood and 
present tense, plural number and first person; agreeing with we — 
Rules. 

I have all the books that I want. I have as many books 
as I want. I have such books as I want. I have more books 
than I want. Do you know what to do with all your books ? * 
I have all the books that I know what to do with. I have 
as many books as I know what to do with. I have more 
books than I know what to do with. 

Where breathes the foe but falls before us ? 

There is no flock, however well attended. 

But one dead lamb is there ; 
There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended. 

But has one vacant chair. 

M—T is the subject of Jiave, and hooks is the object ; that, as, and 
than, are the objects of want, and / is the subject ; you is the subject 



3^4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of do knoWt and what is the object, and also the object of to do, and 
books is the object of 'icitJi ; tliaty as, and than, are the objects of with; 
I is the subject of know, and what is the object, and also the object of 
to do. 

That, as, and tlian, are connective pronouns, in neither gender, 
plural number and third person ; agreeing with their antecedent books 
— Note 8 to Rule G : and in the objective case ; the objects of vnth. 

What is a connective pronoun, in neither gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case twofold ; the object of know and also 
the object of to do — Rule 2. 

To do is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive 
mood and present tense ; relating to / as its subject — Rule 9. 

Foe is the subject of breathes, but is the subject of falls, and us is 
the object of before ; flock, lamb, and fireside, are each the subject of 
is ; but is the subject of has, and chair is the object. 

But is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, and tliird person ; agreeing with foe — Note 8 to Rule 6 : and 
In the nominative case ; the subject of falls — Rule 1. 

J. — ^Is not hut a preposition with lohat understood after 
it as its object and as the subject of falls 9 Let us see. 
" Where breathes the foe but what falls before us ?" 
Mr, S. — On this point our best grammarians differ. I 
would rather call it a connective pronoun than supply aii 
imaginary ellipsis. What is lut in this sentence ? 

To tame his foes, his friends to aid, 
Poor Malcolm has but heart and blade. 

Hr^But is an adjective ; belonging to heart and llade. 

We call our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; 
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will call us so. 

J. — We is the subject of eaUy and fathers is the object ; fooh is in 
apposition with, fathers, and we is the subject of groic ; sons is the sub- 
ject of will call, and us is the object. 

So, in the first line, is an adverb of degree ; relating to udse : in 
the last line, so is an adverb o^ maimer; relating to wUl call. 



EXERCISE IN PARSIITG. 235 

E, — " Our wiser sons, no doubt, will call us so," is equiv- 
alent in sense to ^' Our wiser sons, no doubt, will call us 
fools." Then why is not so a demonstrative pronoun like 
such, in apposition with us? 

J. — " Who shall decide, when doctors disagree, 

And soundest casuists doubt, like you and me ? " 

Mr. S. — Parse wJiat and tohy in this sentence: 

In vain t'ne sage, with retrospective eye, ' 

Would from the apparent tvhat conclude the wJit/. 

F. — Sage is the subject of would conclude, and why is the object ; 
eye is tlie object of with, and what is the object of from. 

What and why are common nouns, in neither gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the objects of from and 
would conclude — Rule 2. 

Sentences to be Parsed. 

Winter is gone, and spring has come again. The blus- 
tering winds are heard no more. The ice and snow have 
melted away, and the earth is clothed in green. How soon 
the seasons change! How swiftly fly the winged hours! 
Before we are aware, days, weeks, months, and years, have 
fled. Thus pass our lives away. We all do fade as the leaf. 
All earthly things are transient. Change and alteration are 
the very essence of life. You are changing every moment, 
and so am I. What are childhood, youth, and manhood, 
but successive changes ? As a vesture thou shalt change 
them, and they shall be changed. 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay. 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
But fixed his word, his saving power remains : 
\ Thy realm forever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

The secretary stood alone. Modern degeneracy had not 
reached him. With one hand he smote the house of Bour- 
bon^ and wielded in the other the democracy of England. 



226 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Joshua commanded the sun and moon to stand still; 
and they obeyed him. These are Ruth's books: I lent her 
mine and borrowed hers. Boys, the girls have learned their 
lesson; and you must learn yours. Our lesson is harder 
than theirs. Whose pens are these? They are ours. He is 
the queen of England's son.* 

When Cicero the orator was consul, he delivered four 
orations against Catiline the conspirator. I the Preacher 
was king over Israel in Jerusalem. Simon, son of Jonas, 
lovest thou me ? Spenser the poet lived in the reigu of 
Queen Elizabeth. I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am come unto 
thee. God be merciful to me a sinner. Have mercy on me, 
Lord, thou son of David. 

Proud Nimrod first the bloody chase began, 

A mighty hunter, and his prey was man : 

Our haughty Norman boasts that barbarous name. 

And makes his trembling slaves the royal game. 

A promise made to be broken is a lie. Truth, crushed 
to earth, will rise again. I am no more worthy to be called 
thy son. They constrained him, saying, Abide with us. 
He, trembling and astonished, said. Lord, what wilt thou 
have me to do? I am in a strait betwixt two, having a 
desire to depart, and be with Christ. There is no sight to 
be seen, no sound to be heard. It is good for men to tread 
a hard and humble path, to encounter difficulties, to expe- 
rience disappointments, to suffer affliction. These all died 
in faith, not having received the promises, but ha\ang seen 
them afar off. 

This last embrace, still cherished in my heart, 
Shall calm the struggling spirit ere it part ! 
Thy darling form shall seem to hover nigh, 
And hush the groan of life's last agony ! 

* Though England's has the ei^ of possession, it is in the objective case, be« 
cause it is the object of the preposition of ; and quMn is in the possessive caee 
without the sign ; he is not England's son, but the queen's. 



EXEECISE IN PARSING. 227* 

Knowledge is power. The pen is mightier than the 
sword. To live and die is all I have to do. To be wise in 
our own eye?, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to 
be wise in the sight x)f our Creator, are three things so very 
different as rarely to coincide. That virtue promotes hap- 
piness and vice produces misery, is generally admitted. 
Why it is so, is more easily asked than answered. Deeds, 
and not words, is a good motto. Whether he is guilty, or 
not guilty, must be decided by the jury. It was decreed by 
the Roman senate, that Carthage must be destroyed. It is 
more blessed to give than to receive. Cicero was steadfast 
in the belief that the soul is immortal. 

'Tis hard to say. if greater want of skill 
Appear in writing or in judging ill ; 
But, of the two, less dangerous is the offence, 
To tire our patience, than mislead our sense. 

Why are ye fearful, ye of little faith ? Ye men of 
Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious. 
wretched prince! cruel reverse of fortune! Shame 
being lost, all virtue is lost. If this doctrine is true, how 
can we help being what we are ? Avoid expressing your- 
selves too severely. The pleasure of smoking or chewing 
tobacco, or of drinking rum, will not pay us for destroying 
our health. Of making many books there is no end. 

See ! from the brake the whirring pheasant springs, 
And mounts exulting on triumphant wings : 
Short is his joy ; he feels the fiery wound, 
Flutters in blood, and panting beats the ground. 
Ah ! what avail his glossy, varying dyes. 
His purple crest, and scarlet-circled eyes. 
The vivid green his shining plumes unfold. 
His painted wings, and breast that flames with gold? 

Happy the man who lives content 
On money safe at three per cent. 
Invests it not in bubble schemes. 
Nor e'er of speculation <ii*eanis. 



228 E:srGLI&H GRAMHAK. 

Him city panics ne'er aflfright, 

Nor threats of money getting tight ; 

He fears not either Bulls or Bears, 

Or sudden rise or fall of shares. 

Him neither Chancery Courts appal. 

Nor the dread street of Basinghall ; 

His cash is safe, his credit sound, 

Though banks be breaking all around 

No horrid dreams disturb his rest. 

No anxious fears his peace molest ; 

No writ destroys his appetite, 

And keeps him wakeful through the night 

Oh, were such happy fortune mine, 

Serenely tranquil I would dine 1 

Nor envy anxious millionaires. 

Their dangerous wealth in doubtful sharea. 

Why did I write ? what sin to me unknown 

Dipped me in ink ? — my parents', or my own t 

As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame, 

I lisped in numbers ; for the numbers came. 

I left no calling for this idle trade. 

No duty broke, no father disobeyed. 

******* 

Soft were my numbers ; who could take offence 

While pure description held the place of sense ? 

Like gentle Fanny's was my flowery theme, 

A painted mistress, or a purling stream. 

Yet then did Gildon draw his venal quill ; 

I wished the man a dinner, and sat still. 

Yet then did Dennis rave in furious fret ; 

I never answered — I was not in debt. 

If want provoked, or madness made them print, 

I waged no war with Bedlam or the Mint. 

No wonder that Oxford and Cambridge profound 
In learning and science so greatly abound. 
When all carry thither a little each day. 
And we meet with so few that take any away. 



CONVEESATION VII, 



SYNTAX 



R. — Will 3^ou let me see your rules of syntax ? 
Mr. S. — Yes : here they are. Study them till they be- 
come as familiar as household words. 

KULE L— Nominatives. 

The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative 
case. 

RULE II. — Objectives. 

The object of a verb or preposition must be in the 
objective case. 

RULE III. — PossESSiVES. 

A noun or pronoun that denotes possession or ownership 
must be in the possessive case. 

RULE IV.— Same Cases. 
A noun or pronoun in apposition or predication with 
another must agree with it in case. 

RULE V. — Nominatives Independent. 
A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other 
word is in the nominative case independent. 

RULE VI.— Pronouns. 
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender 
and number. 



230 El^^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE VII.— Adjectives. 
An adjective belongs to a noun or pronoun. 

RULE VIII.— Finite Verbs. 

A finite verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

RULE IX.— Infinitives. 

An infinitive relates to a noun or pronoun as its subject, 
and generally depends on a verb or noun, an adjective or 
adverb. 

RULE X.— Participles. 

A participle relates to a noun or pronoun as its subject. 

RULE XI.— Prepositions. 
A preposition expresses the relation of its antecedent 
term to its object 

RULE XII.— Adverbs. 

An adverb relates to a verb, an adjective, a preposition, 
or another adverb. 

RULE XIIL— Connectives. 

A connective connects words or phrases, clauses, sen- 
tences, or paragraphs. 

RULE XIV.— Ellipsis. 
Such words as weaken or encumber a sentence should 
be omitted ; but none that are essential to its harmony, 
correctness, perspicuity, or strength. 

RULE XV. — General Principles. 

Every word should have the application, form, and con- 
struction, that are sanctioned by the best authority ; and 
all the parts of a sentence should correspond to one an- 
other. 



STNTAX. 231 

J. — Are these all the rules of syntax that you have ? 

Mr. S. — These are all the leading rules. I have some 
special rules, subordinate to some of these, which I will now 
present as notes. 

NOTES TO RULE I, 

1. Every nominative that is not independent, or in apposition or 
predication Avith another, should be the subject of a verb ; a!s, " Our 
friends are here," instead of " Our friends they are here." 

2. When a verb in the active voice is followed by two objects, the 
direct object should be made the subject of the verb in the passive 
voice ; as, " He offered me ten dollars ; ten dollars were offered me " — 
not " I was offered ten dollars." 

Such a verb as admits two accusatives in Latin may have two 
direct objects in English, and either of them maybe made the subject 
of the verb in the passive voice. The personal accusative is made the 
subject in Latin, and the same principle is generally observed in 
English ; as, " Me sententiam rogavit. He asked me my opinion." 
" Ego sententiam rogatus sum, I was asked my opinion." — Cicero. 
" Me grammaticam docet, He teaches me grammar. Grammaticam 
doceor, I am taught grammar." " Artes edoctus fuerat. He had been 
taught the arts." — Livi/. 

NOTES TO RULE H. 

1. Every transitive verb in the active voice and every preposition 
requires an object ; as, " I wrote to him, and offered to help him." 
This is better than " I wrote to, and offered to help him," or " I wrote 
to him, and offered to help." 

2. An intransitive verb does not admit an object, unless it is used 
transitively; as, "I sat me down." "Flee thee away." This con- 
struction is not sanctioned by good authority 

3. The object of a verb or preposition should not be so far sepa- 
rated from it as to produce ambiguity or inelegance ; as, " He ruined, 
by his profligacy, his reputation and estate." " Who do you offer such 
language to ? " We should say, " He ruined his reputation and estate 
by his profligacy," or, " By his profligacy he ruined his reputation and 
estate." " To whom do you offer such language ? " 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. A verb that has two objects generally retains one of them in 
the passive voice ; as, " I forgive thee thy dna ; thy sins are forgiven 
thee." " Who taught you grammai' ? By whom were you taught <7rar)2- 
mar? " " Why do you ask me so many questions f Why am I asked 
BO many questions 1 " 

5. A verb in the active voice is sometimes followed by a direct ob- 
ject and an indirect one, (like the dative in Latin,) which is generally 
considered the object of a preposition understood; as, "Give me a 
hook." " Forgive us our debts" " He told you the truth." " I bought 
John a farm which cost me ten thousand dollars." W^hen it is diffi- 
cult or inelegant to supply a preposition in such a sentence, one of the 
nouns or pronouns may be parsed as the indirect object of the verb. 
It does not seem proper to supply prepositions in parsing where good 
speakers and writers never use them. 

6. A verb sometimes appears to have two objects when both words 
signify the same person or thing, and one of them is therefore in ap- 
position with the other ; as, " We elected him president." " They 
crowned him Icing." " Who made thee a ruler and a judge over us? " 
" They called me blue eyed Mary" When such a verb is used in the 
passive voice, the direct object becomes its subject, and the appositive 
becomes a predicate nominative; as, ''He was elected president." 
"He was crowned Icing." " By whom wast thou made a ruler and a 
judge over us ?" "I was called blue-eyed Mary." 

7. Nouns denoting the time of an action or event, repetition, dura- 
tion, extent of space or distance, direction, the measure of quantity or 
quality, or of excess, deficiency, or difference, are generally in the ob- 
jective case without a preposition expressed ; as, " She died last night." 
*' He has crossed the Atlantic twenty times." " I have studied Latin 
six months." "We walk two miles every morning." "My farm is 
two hundred rods long and one hundred and fifty rods wide." " The 
snow is three feet deep." " Rome is fifteen miles from Utica." " He 
is a penny wise and a pound foolish." " She is nine years old." " She 
is two years younger than I am." " The price of this watch is ten 
dollars too much." " It cost me five dollars less than it was worth." 
" It is twenty dollars cheaper than yours." " The days are fifteen 
hours long." "The nights are six hours shorter than the days." 
" You are five minutes too late." '* It is ten degrees colder than it was 
an hour ago." 



SYNTAX. 283 

NOTES TO RULE III. 

1. Every noun and pronoun in the possessive case should have its 
proper form ; as, " The poor man's wisdom is despised, and his words 
are not heard." 

2. The sign of possession should be used immediately before the 
name of the thing possessed, either expiessed or understood, and 
nowhere else ; as, " This is not Henry's horse, it is Albert's." 

3. When of with its object is equivalent in sense to a possessive, 
that form should be used which the perspicuity and arrangement of 
the sentence, as well as variety and euphony, require : a disagreeable 
repetition of either should be avoided by a proper intermixture of 
both, or by a different construction of the sentence ; as, " The father 
of my friend's wife," or " My friends father-m-law," instead of "My 
friend's wife's father," or " The father of the wife of my friend." 

4. For the sake of euphony, we omit the apostrophic s, but retain 
the apostrophe, in plural nouns ending with s, and in some singular 
nouns ending with the sound of s, especially in poetry, but not very 
often in prose, unless the following word begins with s ; as, " She 
meekly sat at Jesus* feet." " For conscience' sake." " For righteous- 
ness' sake. 



NOTES TO RULE VI. 

1. When a collective noun that is used as an antecedent expresses 
many as one whole, it requires a singular pronoun ; but when it ex- 
presses many as individuals, it requires a plural pronoun ; as, " Wlien 
the nation complains, its voice must be heeded." "The committee 
were divided in their sentiments." 

2. Two or more antecedents taken together require a plural pro- 
noun ; as, " Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, 
and in their death they were not divided." 

3. Two or more antecedents taken separately require a singular pro- 
noun ; as, "John or Charles has lost his book." "Every officer and 
every private did his duty." 

4. When antecedents or subjects that are taken together are in dif- 
ferent persons, in making the pronoun or verb agree with them in the 
plural, we prefer the second person to the third, and the first to either 
or both of the other persons ; for thou and lie are equivalent to you, 
and thou and /, or he and /, or thou^ he, and J, are equivalent to we; 



234 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, "Thou and he shared it between you." "Charles and I have 
learned our lessons." "You and I, and all our schoolmates, must 
obey our teacher, and remember what he tells us." 

As verbs m the plural number have no variation in our language 
on account of person, violations of this note appear only in the pro- 
nouns. But in parsing a verb whose subjects are in different persons, 
it should be observed. 

5. When antecedents that are taken separately are in different 
genders, numbers, or persons, strict propriety requires the pronoun to 
agree with each antecedent separately ; as, " James has lost his book, 
or Mary has lost hers.'* " Have I neglected my duty ? or have you 
neglected yours ?" 

6. Who is applied to persons, and to things personified; and 
whichy to things not personified ; as, " The king, who may command, 
entreats." " The bird which you gave me is dead." 

7. That is apfplied to persons and things. It is preferable to who 
or which when it is preceded by the interrogative inho, by antecedents 
representing persons and things, by the adjective same, by a superla- 
tive, by an unlimited antecedent before a restrictive clause, and when- 
ever the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, " Who that has any 
sense of propriety would use such language?" "The boy and the 
dog that were here yesterday have come again." " Are these the 
same books that I lent you ? " " It is the best book that I have ever 
read." " Trees that retain their leaves during winter are called ever- 
greens." " He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him." 

8. The connective pronouns, who, which, that, and as, must agree 
with their antecedents in person, as well as in gender and number, 
and verbs must agree with them accordingly ; " I who speak, and you 
that hear me, and the things which are spoken of, must pass away." 
"Let such as advise others be careful what they do themselves." 

9. When the subject and the predicate nominative are in different 
numbers or persons, and a pronoun is made to agree with either of 
them as its antecedent, that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence ; as, " I am he that hreathes upon the earth with the 
breath of spring, and that covers it with verdure and beauty." It 
would be improper to make that agree with he in one clause and with 
/ in the other ; thus, " I am he that breathes upon the earth with the 
breath of spring, and that cover it with verdure and beauty." 

10. The same antecedent should be represented by the same pro- 
noun in the different parts of a sentence ; as, " Our tutors are cm 



SYNTAX. 235 

benefactors, to viliom we owe obedience, and whom we ought to love." 
" Do to others as you would have them do to you." It would be im- 
proper to say, '• Our tutors are our benefactors, to wliom we owe obe- 
dience, and that we ought to love." " Do to others as yoii would have 
them do to thee" 

11. Such pronouns as the sense requires should be used, and be so 
placed as to prevent ambiguity and inelegance ; as, " I will give each 
of you a book " — not " all of you." " I that speak unto thee, am he." 
" I am he, that speak unto thee," would be inelegant, if not am- 
biguous. > 

13. When the structure of the sentence will not allow a pronoun 
to be so placed as to show clearly what it represents, the antecedent 
should be repeated, or the sentence should be differently constructed ; 
as, " Many are charmed by the beauty of poetry ; but few can tell 
wherein it consists." It should be, " Many are charmed by the beauty 
of poetry ; but few can tell wherein its beauty consists." 

NOTES TO RULE VII. 

1. An adjective denoting unity or plurality and the noun to which 
it belongs must agree in number; as, " One foot, ten feet ; this kind, 
these kinds. " 

2. Such adjectives as the sense requires should be used ; and none 
that are not essential to the perspicuity, strength, or harmony of the 

sentence. 

3. Every adjective should be so placed as to show clearly to what 
it belongs, and best promote the perspicuity, strength, and elegance of 
the sentence ; as, " A pair of new gloves," " A span of fine horses," 
instead of *' A new pair of gloves," " A fine span of horses." 

4. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound euphony requires 
an, and a before a word beginning with a consonant sound ; as, an 
enemy, an hour, a day. 

5. An adjective should not be used for an adverb, nor an adverb 
for an adjective ; as, " Speak plain." " Thine often infirmities." We 
should say, " Spesik plainly." " Thy frequent infirmities." 

6. Wlien the latter term of comparison excludes the former, the 
comparative degree should be used ; as, " Wisdom is better than 
weapons of war." But when the latter term of comparison includes 



5!i30 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

the formeir, the superlative should be nsed : as, " Gold is the heaviest 
and most valtictUe of all metals." 

7. Double comijaratives and superlatives should be avoided ; as, 
" On lesser hopes " " The most straitest sect." Say, " On less hoj)es." 
" The straitest sect." 

8. Adjectives whose signification is not capable of increase or 
diminution, such as square, circular, parallel, right, true, full, 
perfect, etc., do not admit comparative terminations nor adverbs 
of degree. 

NOTES TO RULE VIII. 

1. When a collective noun that is used as a subject expresses 
many as one whole, it requires a singular verb ; but when it expresses 
many as individuals, the verb must be plural ; as, " The meeting was 
large." " The audience were delighted." 

2. A sentential subject or antecedent requires a singular verb or 
pronoun ; as, " Always taking out of the meal-tub and never putting 
in, soon comes to the bottom." " To speak and write correctly requires 
a knowledge of rhetoric and logic, as well as grammar." " That 
warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body and 
shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe." 

" To know thyself, and thy God to know, 
This is true wisdom's sum below : 
With it the weakest child is wise ; 
The sage without it in darkness dies." 

3. Two or more subjects taken together require a plural verb ; as, 
*' Exercise and temperance preserve health." " John and Charles have 
torn my book." " To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use ex- 
ercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous 
emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

4. Two or more singular subjects taken separately require a sin- 
gular verb; as, "John or Charles has torn my book." " He, as well 
as she, is to blame." " To lie or to swear is immoral." " Every word, 
tone, look, and gesture, leaves its impress on the mind." "A day, an 
hour of virtuous liberty, is worth a whole eternity of bondage." 

5. When subjects that are taken separately are in different num- 
bers or persons, the verb must agree with that which is placed nearest 
to it ; as, " The teacher or the echolars were to blame." " You or I 



SYNTAX. 237 

wm deceived." But it is generally better to use the verb or its auxil- 
iary with each subject ; as, " The teacher was to blame, or the scholars 
were." " You are deceived, or I am." 

6. Two or more nouns that signify the same person or thing can 
hardly be considered distinct subjects or antecedents : they are only 
different names, titles, or epithets, for the same subject or antecedent ; 
and therefore they require singular verbs and pronouns ; as, " Our 
Lord and Saviour was crucified between two thieves." " This cele- 
brated philosopher and poet was tanished from his country." 

7. Every finite verb must have a subject ; as, " He is the man 
wJwm we visited yesterday, and who entertained us so freely." It 
would be improper to say, " He is the man whom we visited yesterday, 
and entertained us so freely." 

NOTES TO RULES IX AND X. 

1. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after Hd, let, make, see, 
hear, and feel, in the active voice, and sometimes after behold, observe, 
perceive, dare, need, have, and help ; as, " Let me go. " " We made 
them run." " I heard him sing." 

2. After stop, leave off, commence, continue, keep, abhor, avoid, for- 
bear, and help, participles are generally used instead of infinitives ; 
as, " Stop drinking rum." " Leave oflf using tobacco." " Have you 
commenced reading Homer?" " They continued rt^M?!^' him." "He 
keeps singing, chickadee-dee." " We abhor being drunkards." "Avoid 
reading too fast." " Who can forbear pitying them ? " "I could not 
help laughing." 

3. A participle should not have the construction of a verb and that 
of a noun or adjective at the same time ; as, " Is such language becom- 
ing a Christian ? " " True worship consists not in the uttering or the 
hearing certain words." We should say, " Is such language becoming 
to a Christian ? " " True worship consists not in the uttering or the 
hearing of certain words, " or " in uttering or hearing certain words." 

4. Every infinitive and every participle that is not used abstractly 
should have its proper subject ; as, " Do you expect to learn without 
studying ? " " By reading good books we improve our minds." '' Look- 
ing through the telescope, I could see Jupiter and his moons." If we 
€ay, *' Is it your expectation to learn without studying 1 " " By reading 
good books our minds are improved ; " " Looking through the tele- 



238 ENGLISH QEAMMAE. 

scope, Jupiter and his moons could be seen;" we deprive to learn^ 
reading, and looking of their proper subjects, and obscure the sense. 

5. Every infinitive and every participle should have its proper 
form and application : one should not be used for the other, nor 
should either of them be used where a finite verb or a noun would 
better express the meaning ; as, " I intend studying Latin," for " I in- 
tend to study Latin." " I believe him to he an impostor," for '• I be- 
lieve that he is an impostor." " I doubt him to he sincere," for " I 
doubt his sincerity." 

6. We should be extremely careful to give the past tense and the 
perfect participle the forms that are sanctioned by the best authority, 
and never to use one of them for the other. 

7. An infinitive or participle that is used abstractly, though it has 
no subject, generally retains its object, and enough of the nature of a 
verb to have adverbs relating to it ; as, " To wish more virtue is to 
gain." " It is more glorious thus to rise than never to have fallen," 
" Seneca says, there is no difference between possessing a thing and 
not desiring it. " In parsing such a sentence you may call the whole 
phrase a sentential noun, after parsing each word separately. But 
when participles have adjectives belonging to them, they are con- 
verted into verbal nouns, and cannot properly have any objects. 

8. An abstract infinitive does not relate to any subject, and some- 
times an infinitive that has a subject does not depend on a verb, noun, 
or adjective, or any other word ; as, '* There was no time to he lost." 
'* He had no friends to help him." " There shall be none to bury her." 
*' A brave man should be afraid to sail upon the treacherous and 
stormy sea of life without Christ to calm the waves, to hush the winds, 
and to hring him safe to the land of rest." 

" Inspiring thought of rapture yet to he / " 

NOTES TO RULE XL 

1. Every preposition should express the relation intended; as, " He 
was taken by stratagem and killed mth a sword." If we say, " He was 
taken with stratagem and killed by a sword," neither of these preposi- 
tions will express the relation intended. 

2. No unnecessary preposition should be used, nor should any 
preposition that the sense requires be omitted ; as, " I teach grammar 
to you. " " He was banished England." Say, " I teach you grammar." 
"He was banished /ro?w England." 



SYNTAX. 239 

3. A preposition should be placed so near tlie terms of relation as 
to prevent ambiguity and inelegance ; us, " You can see, with half an 
eye, how the world goes." " You can see how the world goes, with 
half an eye," would be inelegant, if not ambiguou 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 

1. Adverbs should be so placed as to express the meaning clearly 
and elegantly ; as, " These things should never be separated." This 
is better than " These things should be never separated," or " These 
things never should be separated." 

2. Double negatives should be avoided, unless we mean to express 
an affirmation ; for two negatives in the same clause destroy each 
other ; as, "I can not, by no means, excuse you." Say, " I can, by no 
means, excuse you," or " I can not, by any means, excuse you." 

3. We should be careful to use such adverbs as the sense requires, 
and such as are sanctioned by the best authority ; as, " Ask me ever so 
much dowery," instead of "Ask me never so much." 

NOTES TO RULE XIII. 

1. Correlative connectives should be properly adapted to the words 
"with which they are coupled ; as, Both — and, either — or, neither — nor, 
whether — or, though — yet, as — as, as — so, so — as, so — that, such — as, 
such— that, else — than, other — than, and rather — than. The latter 
word in each of these pairs is the proper correlative of the former ; as, 
" She is both deaf and blind." " If you will not work, you must either 
beg or steal." 

2. We should be careful to use such connectives as the sense re- 
quires, and such as are sanctioned by the best authority. 

NOTES TO RULE XIV. 

1. Before adjectives connected to others that describe different pei^ 
sons or things having the same name, a or the should be repeated, and 
so should a numeral ; as, " I have two roses, a red and a white rose, or 
one red and one white rose." " Here are a dozen roses, six red and six 
white roses." " Are the east and the west line measured ? " But when 
such adjectives describe the same persons or things these words should 
not be repeated ; as, "I have a red and white rose." "Here are six 
red and white roses." " Is the east and west hne measured ? " 



240 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

8. The same expression should not be repeated in such a manner 
as to produce monotony. But emphatic repetitions properl}- used are 
very elegant ; as, " O Absalom, my son, my son! " " Jerusalem, Je- 
rusalem! " " Babylon the great is fallen, is fallen." " Alas, alas, that 
great city ! " "I would never lay down my arms — never, never, never." 

By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed, 
^Y foreign Jiands thy decent limbs composed, 
Bj foreign hands thy humble grave adorned. 
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned ! 

NOTES TO RULE XV. 

1 Unauthorized innovations like the doubling of the verb to be as 
an auxiliary in the passive voice, as well as obsolete expressions, vul- 
garisms, puerilities, slang phrases, barbarisms, and the solemn style in 
familiar discourse, should be avoided ; as, " We are being taught. Ho 
is holden. She readeth well." Say, "We are taught. He is held. 
She reads well." 

2. The moods and tenses of verbs, their voices, and their different 
forms, should be so used as to express our thoughts correctly and 
elegantly. 



APPOSITION AND PREDICATION. 

R, — There are some of these rules and notes that we 
don't understand. May we ask you a few questions ? 

Mr. /S'.— Certainly; as many as you please. 

j2._\Yin you explain Rule 4, and show the difference 
between a noun or pronoun in apposition with another and 
one that is in predication with another ? 

Mr, ^S'.— This can be best illustrated by examples. A 
noun or pronoun in apposition with another, is added to it 
as an explanatory or emphatic term denoting the same per- 
son or thing, and is called an appositive ; as, " Cicero the 
orator defended Achias the poet" "I tell you that which 
you yourselves do know." "We ourselves will march." "I 
will go my self r "I myself will go." "They must do it 



SYNTAX. 241 

themselves.^^ "They themselves must do it." A noun or 
pronoun in predication with another is united to it by an 
intransitive verb, or a transitive verb in the passive voice, 
to cliaracterize or explain a subject. It is called a predicate 
noun or pronoun, because it is a part of the predicate and 
expresses what is predicated of a subject ; as, " Cicero was 
an orator" " He was chosen consul." " It is sown a nat- 
ural body, it is raised a spiritual body" " I am he." " Is it 
If" " TF/io art thou?" "Whose ^oo^•5 are these?" "This 
book is 7)iine, and that is yours." "I took him to be a 
gentleman." " There came a rich man of Arimathea, named 
Joseph, who also himself was Jesus' disciple." "It appears 
to have been a splendid city." 

" From a passive subaltern I bid you to rise 
The inventor, as well as the printer, of lies." 

A noun is sometimes in apposition wdth a pronoun, and 
a pronoun is occasionally in apposition with a noun ; as, 
"When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come." "This is the 
stone which was set at naught of you builders." " I Jesus 
have sent mine angel." "Thou wicked and slothful ser- 
vant" "They slew Varus, hi7n that was mention before." 
" Jerusalem, Jerusalem ! thou that killest the prophets." 

" O not a moment could he brook, 
The generous prince, that suppliant look ! " 

The same word is sometimes repeated as an appositive, 
for the sake of emphasis, either with or without an addi- 
tional epithet, and occasionally as a predicate noun or pro- 
noun; as, "I, 7, /myself, can hardly keep the terms of my 
honor precise." " A man is a ?7za;2." "lam/." "Is not 
the truth the truth?" "They are they which testify of 
me." " This, only this, subdues the fear of death." " They 
have hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns that can hold 
no water." 

11 



243 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

" Heaven's gates spontaneous open to the powers, 
Heaven's golden gates^ kept by the winged hours." 

The leading term is generally placed before the apposi- 
tive. But this order is sometimes inverted ; as, 

" Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." 
'* Emblem of peace, the dove before thee flies." 

Sometimes several nouns in apposition follow one an- 
other in close succession ; as, " Come, gentle Spring, ethe- 
real Mildness, come ! " 

" Since all on earth I valued most. 
My guide, my stay, my friend, is losU" 

" O happiness ! our being's end and aim ; 
Good, pleasure, ease, content, whate'er thy name I " 

This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle. 

This ea^rth of majesty, this seat of Mars, 

This other Eden, demi-paradise ; 

This fortress, built by nature for herself. 

Against infection and the hand of war ; 

This happy breed of men, this little world, 

This precious stone set in the silver sea — 

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, 

This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land. 

Dear for her reputation through the world. 

Is now leased out. 

/. — ^When a noun or pronoun is connected by or, and, or 
as, to another signifying the same person or thing, is it in 
apposition with it ? 

Mr. S. — I think it is not ; for apposition is the state of 
a noun or pronoun that is added to another in the same 
case, and not united to it by an intervening word. Some 
very good grammarians call nouns that follow as apposi- 
tives in sentences like these : " He has a high reputation as 



SYNTAX. 243 

a laioyer.^^ " As a statesman^ he had few equals ; but as a 
general, he was unsuccessful." " We admire him as a poet, 
but dislike him as a man." In such sentences it is better 
to call as a preposition. 

A noun in apposition with another in the possessive case 
seldom has the possessive sign, unless it is followed by the 
name of what is possessed ; as, " Give me John the Baptist's 
head." '^For David my servant's sake." "These psalms 
are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish 
people." " This is Paul the apostle's advice." " This is 
Paul's advice, the Christian hero, and great apostle of the 
Gentiles." "He emulated Caesar's glory, the greatest gen- 
eral of antiquity." " These orations are Cicero's, the great 
Roman orator." 

Sometimes a singular noun or pronoun preceded by 
every is in apposition with a plural noun or pronoun, or 
with two or more singular ones taken together, and so 
is each followed by other, also one followed by another ; as, 
"Christians love one another. They deal justly every 
ma7i with his neighbor. If we defraud one another, we 
are not Christians. David and Jonathan loved each 
other. You and I and all our schoolmates should be 
kind to one another." We generally apply each other to 
two persons or things, and one another to more than 
two. But each by itself signifies every one of any 
number; as, "He had four children, and he left them each 
ten thousand dollars." 

A noun is sometimes in apposition with a clause, and a 
clause is occasionally in apposition with a noun ; as, " She 
took care of me while I was sick — a favor which I shall 
always remember." 

" May this plain truth be treasured in your heart : 
To copy nature is the end of art." 



244 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NOMINATIVES INDEPENDENT. 

E. — How can we teU when a noun or pronoun is in the 
nominative case independent ? 

Mr. 8. — When a noun or pronoun is not the subject of 
a finite verb, nor in apposition or predication with another, 
nor in the possessive case or the objective, its case depends 
on no other word, and it is therefore independent. 

There are four circumstances under which grammarians 
say a noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independ- 
ent. 1. By direct address ; as, " Paul, thou art beside thy- 
self." " I am not mad, most noble Festus" " Ye serpents, 
ye generation of vipers ! " " Ah, thou that destroyest the 
temple." 2. By exclamation; as, "Alas, poor Yorich!" 
" Oh cruel reverse of fortune ! " " Ah, luckless I! " " Sal- 
vation! the joyful sound!" 3. By pleonasm; as, "iT*? 
that is righteous, let him be righteous still." " The com- 
panions of my youth, where are they ? " 4. With a partici- 
ple in a phrase that expresses a concurrent fact ; as, " The 
storm having ceased, I went on deck." "We launched, 
meaning to sail by the coast of Asia, one AristarchuSi a 
Macedonian of Thessalonica being with us." She being the 
only child, the whole estate is hers." 

To this may be added the nominative case independent 
by abbreviation, in broken or unfinished sentences and con- 
densed expressions, such as mottoes, inscriptions on monu- 
ments and signs, directions of letters, labels on medicine, 
titles of books, etc. ; as, " An eye for an eye, and a tooth for 
a tooth." " Tidings, king." " No Cross, no CroiunP 
''Essay on Man." "Union Hotels "Boots and Shoes.'' 
"/. Doolittle and O)." " R. Jones, Esq., Utica, N. Y," 

We may also add the nominative case independent with 
an abstract infinitive ; as, " To be a Christian is better than 
to be a Icing." 



SYNTAX. 245 

R. — Is Macedonian in the nominative case independent? 

3fr. S. — No : its case depends on Aristarchus ; for it is 
in apposi tion with it. So are serpents and generation in ap- 
position with ye. 

P. — Is cMld in the nominative case independent ? 

Mr, S.—'No : it is in predication with she. 

J. — How can we tell the case of a noun that is in appo- 
sition with a clause, which has no case ? Why is it not in 
the nominative case independent ? does its case depend on 
any other word ? 

Mr. S. — Its case does not depend on any other word, and 
therefore it is in the nominative case independent. The 
clause on which it depends has no case, because it has no 
grammatical dependence on any thing else : its construction 
is complete within itself. The same may be said of appos- 
itive clauses like these : " The old maxim, ' Might makes 
right,' will disappear." " He puts the question, ' Why weep- 
est thou ?' to all the sons and daughters of affliction." 

" the sweet joy this sentence gives : 
I know that my Redeemer lives ! " 

But an appositive phrase does not make complete sense 
of itself: it depends on the word with which it is in appo- 
sition, and therefore agrees with it in case ; as, " It is always 
expedient to do right." " It is a crime to put a Roman 
citizen in bonds." 

R. — In such an expression as ah me ! does the case of me 
depend on any other word ? 

Mr. S. — Some very good grammarians say it depends on 
a verb understood; as, "Ah! pity me." But I doubt the 
propriety of supplying words in parsing that are not plainly 
understood. We should never resort to imaginary ellipsis. 
I think its case does not depend on any other word. "Ah 
me !" "Ah, luckless If" and "Ah, thou that destroyest the 
temple ! " are analogous expressions. As / and thou are in 



246 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

the nominative case independent, why is not me in the ob- 
jective case independent ? We have no rule for it, because 
all our nouns and pronouns, except me after ah, are in the 
nominative case independent when their case depends on 
no other word. 

/. — In this sentence, " I am a thousand dollars poorer 
than I was last year," are not dollars and year in the ob- 
jective case independent ? 

Mr. 8. — These nouns are in the objective case without a 
'preposition expressed, according to Note 7 to Rule 2. 



ANTECEDENTS AND SUBJECTS. 

E. — How can we tell whether two or more antecedents 
or subjects are taken together or separately ? 

Mr, S. — When they are connected by and they are taken 
together, unless they are preceded by each, every, or no, or 
and is followed by also, likewise, too, or not ; as, " Phebe, 
Euth, and Ida, have learned their lessons." But when they 
are connected by or, nor, or as well as, or by and, if they are 
preceded by each, every, or no, or and is followed by also, 
likewise, too, or not, they are taken separately ; as, " Ann or 
Kate has lost her book.'' " Ann, as well as Kate, has lost 
her book." " Neither Phebe, Ruth, nor Ida, has learned her 
lessons." " Ann, and also Kate, has learned her lessons." 
" Ann, and likewise Kate, has recited." " John, and James 
too, was punished.'^ "John, and not James, was pun- 
ished.'' 

P. — I don't exactly understand your illustrations. 

Mr. S. — When also, likewise, too, or not, is used after and, 
the repetition of the verb is necessarily implied ; for, other- 
wise, the adverb would have no grammatical dependence. 
Consequently, one of the nouns is the subject of a verb ex- 
pressed, and the other is the subject of a verb understood ; 



S Y K T A X . 247 

therefore they are taken separately, and belong to different 
clauses. These examples are equivalent to " Ann has learned 
her lessons, and Kate has also learned hers." " Ann has re- 
cited, and Kate has recited likewise." " John was punished, 
and James was punished too." "John was punished, and 
James was not punished." When a verb comes between two 
subjects it agrees with the one before it, and is understood 
after the other ; as, " There ever-lasting spring abides, and 
never- withering flowers [abide]." 

M. — Can two or more nouns or pronouns be the subjects 
of the same verb, and yet be taken separately ? 

Mr. 8. — I think they can when they are connected by 
or or nor. But when they are connected by as well as, one 
of them is the subject of a verb understood ; as, " You, as 
well as I, are liable to err." Here you is the subject of are; 
and / is the subject of am, understood ; thus, " You are 
liable to err, as well as I am." 

J. — I have great respect for your opinion, Mr. Smith. 
But I cannot see how we can think of different subjects 
separately without having a separate thought on each sub- 
ject. We think "Ann has lost her book, or Kate has lost 
hers." But, for the sake of brevity, we leave one of these 
thoughts unexpressed, yet readily understood, and say, "Ann 
or Kate has lost her book." We think " Phebe has not 
learned her lessons, Ruth has not learned hers, nor has Ann 
learned hers." We then condense the expression of these 
thoughts into " Neither Phebe, Ruth, nor Ann, has learned 
her lessons." 

H. — Why are subjects and antecedents that are connected 
by and taken separately, when they are preceded by each, 
every, or no 9 

Mr. S. — Because these adjectives counteract the effect of 
and, presenting to our view each individual singly; as, 
" Eaqh son and daughter is entitled to an equal share of the 



248 EJ&TGLISH GRAMMA K. 

estate." "Every man and every boy is known by the com- 
pany he keeps." "No beast, no bird, no insect, and no 
worm, ivas made in vain." 

P. — When an arithmetical or algebraic term is used as a 
subject, how can we tell whether the verb should be singu- 
lar or plural ? 

Mr, S. — A numeral expressing an abstract number, like 
a collective noun that expresses many as one whole, requires 
a singular verb ; as, " Six [taken] from nine leaves three." 
" Four from nine leaves five." " Is three a prime number V " 
" Twice three [three repeated twice] is six." " Three times 
three is nine." Times is not the subject of is, but in the 
objective case, according to Note 7 to Eule 2. If you con- 
sider this, you will see the impropriety of such expressions 
as, "Three times one are three; four times one are four, 
etc." If we take twice three or three times three together as 
a subject, we must use a singular verb. 

An algebraical expression of quantity is generally taken 
as one whole, and therefore requires a singular verb ; as, 
3a; + 4 is equal to 16. The same principle should be ap- 
plied to similar arithmetical expressions ; as, 6 x 8 + 5 i5 
53. 

In repeating the multiplication table, many are misled to 
the use of a plural verb by mistaking times for the subject; 
as, " Six times one are six ; six times two are twelve, etc." 
But in proportion it is customary to use a singular verb ; 
as, "Four is to eight as five is to ten." 

When a numeral expresses an abstract number it is a 
collective noun conveying the idea of unity, because the 
whole collection is regarded as one assemblage of units : we 
do not think of individuals. But when it expresses a con- 
crete number it is an adjective, and the noun to which it 
belongs is the subject 



BY NT AX. 249 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

IT, — Are infinitives and participles verbs ? 

Mr, S. — When they relate to subjects they are verbs, 
and when they have no subjects they are generally considered 
verbal nouns. But when they retain enough of the nature 
of verbs to liave adverbs relating to them or objects after 
them, though they have no subjects, it is better to call them 
verbs. 

i?. — In what case are their subjects? 

Mr. S. — They are either in the nominative or the object- 
ive case; and they are generally the subjects or objects of 
finite verbs; as, "/ intend to go; he requested me to go; I 
was requested to go." " Entering into the sepulchre, they 
saw a young man sitting on the right side, clothed in a long 
white garment." 

By relating to the subject or object of a finite verb, an 
infinitive or participle expresses a dependent or collateral 
thought united in sense to another without a connective, 
and thus contributes to the brevity of language. Use finite 
verbs to express the thoughts that are expressed by infini- 
tives and participles in the sentences that I present, and you 
will see. 

I promised to huy her a book. 

E. — I promised that 1 2oould huy her a book. 

I told him to come in immediately. 

p. — I told him that he should come in immediately. 

They died to save their country. 

W. — They died that they might save their country. 
. I saw tliem lying on the cold ground. 
' J. — I saw them as they lay on the cold ground. 

Age and want sit smiling at the gate. 

R. — Age and w^ant sit at the gate and smile. 



250 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Having finislied our work, we went home. 

G. — When ice had finished our work we went home. 

There is a fountain filled with blood. 

J. — There is a fountain ivhich is filled with blood. 

These examples are sufficient to show how language is 
condensed and made expressive by the use of infinitives and 
participles. Finite verbs will not very often fully express 
their meaning. They perform a great variety of offices. As 
we have no gerunds, supines, or gerundives, this deficiency 
must be supplied by different applications of infinitives and 
participles. 

In nominative phrases infinitives seldom have any sub- 
jects or any dependence on verbs or nouns, adjectives or ad- 
verbs ; and yet they are used as verbs, because adverbs relate 
to them, and, if they are in the active voice, they have ob- 
jects ; as, " To live temperately and to tahe proper exercise^ 
are the best preservatives of health." " Never to give offence 
is true politeness.'' "It is impolite to speah impatiently to 
servants." " The best kind of preaching is to live a Christian 
lifer 

" ' Tis the first virtue, xices to abhor ; 
And the first wisdom, to he fool no more." 

When participles are used in nominative phrases, they 
generally retain the nature of verbs, like abstract infinitives, 
though they have no subjects; as, '^Drinking largely sobers 
us again." " Giving advice unasked is a piece of rudeness." 
" Nature's chief masterpiece is writing welir The use of 
participles instead of infinitives in such sentences is con- 
demned by many good grammarians, but sanctioned by our 
best speakers and writers. It is, however, generally better 
to use infinitives in nominative phrases, especially if they 
are in apposition or predication with nouns or pronouns, or 
with other phrases. 

In objective phrases participles frequently relate to sub- 



SYNTAX. 251 

jects while they seem to be the objects of verbs or preposi- 
tions ; as, " JVe should avoid giving offence." " We cannot 
wrong others without injuring ourselves." " / ask no re- 
ward for doing my duty." "/ cannot help admiring his 
poems." "By dri7iking moderately theg became drunk- 
ards." " Be lost his life in liberating his country." Here, 
givi)ig and injuring relate to tve as their subject, doing and 
admiring relate to /, drinking relates to theg, and liberating 
relates to he. These participles appear to be the objects of 
verbs and prepositions ; but the real objects are thd phrases, 
giving offence, injuring ourselves, doing my duty, admiring 
his poems, drinking moderately, and liberating his country. 
But participles in objective phrases sometimes have no sub- 
jects ; as, *' Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
correctly." " There is a great difference between paying in- 
terest and receiving it," 

Infinitives that depend on transitive verbs are not their 
objects; for they do not lose their regimen and become 
nouns: their dependence is the same as if the verbs on 
which they depend were intransitive, or in the passive 
voice ; as, " She began to study diligently. She seemed to 
study diligently. ' He hates to learn his lessons. He ought 
to learn his lessons. He is compelled to learn his les- 
sons." 

J. — I do not understand how infinitives depend on ad- 
verbs. Will you give us some examples ? 

Mr. S. — They had gone too far to return before night. 
You have studied long enough to be good scholars. The 
sun shines so bright as to dazzle our eyes. We mean to do 
our work so as to receive his approbation. A cannon ball 
flies too swiftly to be seen. They differ too much in principle 
to live peaceably together. Paul spoke so eloquently as to 
make Felix tremble. 



252 EIJ-OLISH GEAMMAR. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

^' — Does every adjective belong to a noun or pronoun ? 

Mr. S, — Adjectives are sometimes used abstractly with 
abstract infinitives and participles. They then belong to 
no particular noun or pronoun ; as, " To be virtuous is to be 
happy." -'Whiteness is the state of heing ivhite." "It is 
impossible to be truly loise without being good." An adjec- 
tive sometimes belongs to a phrase or clause ; as, " To see 
the sun is pleasant." " To do wrong is never expedient." 
"That the whole is greater than a part is self-evident." 
" Contrary to orders, they pursued the enemy across the 
river." " Agreeable to my promise, I send you my portrait 
and a copy of my poems." 

T. — What is a predicate adjective ? 

Mr. S. — It is an adjective that expresses what is predi- 
cated of a subject. It is used with a verb as a part of the 
predicate, and is sometimes mistaken for a part of the verb 
by inexperienced grammarians. It belongs to the subject 
of the verb with which it is used ; as, " God is tuise and 
good." "I have been young, and now I am old." They 
were prudent and industrious, and soon became rich" 
**'We are glad that you have been successful." "Is he 
honest, and is he capable?" "The rose smells siveet, but it 
tastes bitter." " Ice feels cold and smooth." " The sun 
&\\\Y\Qs dim." "The clouds look darJc and heavy." "The 
wind blows daynp and chilly." " The lights burn blue." 
" And redder yet those fires shall glow." " How many rosy 
cheeks turn pale I " " How many families are made poor 
and 7niserable by intemperance ! " "To err is human; to 
forgive divine" " It is more glorious to save than to 
destroy." 

An adjective is sometimes placed after the object of a 



SYNTAX. 253 

verb, to express a quality or attribute attending the action 
or resulting from it ; as, " He found me rich, and left me 
poor.'' " True religion makes us honest, frugal, and incliiS' 
trioiis, cheerful, hind, and generous'' " Color this cloth 
hlack." "Paint the blinds green." "Virtue renders its 
possessor truly amiable." 

jR. — Do adverbs ever relate to nouns or pronouns ? 

Mr. S. — Some grammarians say so. But if we admit 
this doctrine, how can we distinguish adjectives from ad- 
verbs? When words of an adverbial character relate to 
nouns or pronouns, they are used as adjectives, and should 
be called so in parsing; as, "1 mean such pleasures ohIt/ ag 
arise from sight." " I, even I onh/, am left." " Their verg 
names are now forgotten." "Virtue alo7ie is happiness 
beloio." " The waves behind impel the waves before." 

An adverb sometimes relates to a phrase or clause ; as, 
" Thou hast a few names even in Sardis." " Theism can be 
opposed onlg to polytheism or atheism." " He WTote this 
letter merely for political effect." "They get their living 
principally by hunting and fishing." 

" Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined." 

" Search through this garden, leave unsearched no nook, 
But chiefly where those two fair creatures lodge." 

When phrases that are generally adverbial relate to 
nouns they may be called adjective phrases ; as, " The spa- 
cious firmament on high." ^ 

ELLIPSIS. 

M. — Will you give us an explanation of ellipsis 
Mr. S. — Ellipsis is an omission of words. Supply the 
w^ords that are omitted in each sentence that I give you. I 
can make you understand ellipsis better by example than 
precept. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. — I can make you understand ellipsis better by exam- 
ple than / can make you understand it hy precept. 

Mr. S. — Here is an ellipsis: the pronouns, /, you, and tY, 
the preposition by, and the verbs can make and understand, 
are omitted. 

I love not man the less, but nature more. 

P. — I love not man the less, but / love nature more. 

i?.— Here the pronoun /and the verb love are omitted. 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his 
spots ? 

H. — Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or can the 
leopard change his spots ? 

G. — The verb can change is here omitted. 

Many poor men appear as if they were rich. 

J, — Many poor men appear as they would appear if they 
were rich. 

W. — The pronoun they and the verb would appear are 
omitted. 

Custom is the law of one sort of fools ; and fashion, of 
another. 

T. — Custom is the law of one sort of fools ; and fashion 
is the law of another sort of fools. 

D. — The verb is, the adjective the, the preposition of, 
and the nouns, law, sort, and fools, are omitted. 

They confess his power, wisdom, goodness, and love. 

i^.— They confess his power, and his wisdom, and his 
goodness, and his love. 

Here are beautiful gardens, orchards, fields, and groves. 

JV". — Here are beautiful gardens, and beautiful orchards, 
and beautiful fields, and beautiful groves. 

He speaks and writes correctly. 

E. — He speaks correctly and writes correctly. 

The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much bet- 
ter by Solomon than him. 

R. — The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but it is 



SYNTAX. 255 

much better expressed by Solomon than it is expressed by 
him. 

A modest, civil, well-bred man 
Will not insult me — no other can. 

P. — A modest, civil, well-bred man will not insult me — 
no other man can insult me. 

Mr. S. — From these examples, you can see that there 
may be an ellipsis of any part of speech. Our compound 
sentences are generally more or less elliptical. The fewer 
words we use to express our thoughts the better is our lan- 
guage, if we make them clearly understood ; for brevity is 
the soul of eloquence, as well as wit. Such words as can be 
easily supplied by the hearer or reader it is better to omit, 
unless they are essential to the harmony, propriety, or 
strength of the sentence. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

/. — I don't exactly understand your last rule. 

Mr. 8. — It is very comprehensive ; for it is intended to 
correct all erroneous expressions that are not violations of 
any other rules or some of the notes. It is the connecting 
link between grammar and rhetoric. A strict observance 
of this rule requires us to understand the meaning of all 
the words we use, and to be intimately acquainted with the 
writings of our best authors, so that we can know what is 
sanctioned by good authority. Eead the best books that 
you can get, observe the structure of the sentences, and 
when you find a word that you do not understand, consult 
your dictionary and learn its meaning. As I speak a few 
sentences, correct me, if I violate this rule. 

I set in this chair and learn you grammar. 

R. — I sit in this chair and teach you grammar. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

She is as old, if not older than I am. 

P. — She is as old as I am, if not older. 

J. — Is it proper to say, the books are being sold ? 

3fr. S. — I think it is not. Are being sold should be are 
selling, because this is the form that is sanctioned by the 
best authority. 

/. — The other form is sanctioned by polite and fashion- 
able people. What better authority can we have ? 

i¥r. S. — The uniform practice of our best speakers and 
writers from time immemorable, the idiom of our language, 
reason, and analogy, are better authority. " The books are 
being sold I " What does this expression mean ? 

J. — The continuance of the action in the passive voice : 
it means that the sale of the books is still progressing. 

Mr. S, — "The books being sold—" What does this 
mean ? 

E. — It means that the sale of the books is completed : 
" The books being sold, we published another edition." 

Mr. S, — How can the doubling of the verb to be before 
the perfect participle represent an action as unfinished, 
while the participle represents it as finished ? " The hooka 
are being sold " is as absurd and gross a solecism as " The 
books exist existing sold;" and as the latter expression is 
equivalent in sense to " The books exist sold," so is the 
former to " The books are sold" No other meaning can be 
wrung out of it without torturing our native EngHsh. 

It is just as proper to double one of these verbs as the 
other ; and nothing conceals the absurdity of such expres- 
sions but the irregularity of the verb to be, which assumes 
such dissimilar forms as am, art, is, was, are, tvere, being, 
and been ; appearing like different verbs ; as you will see by 
using be instead of are ; thus, " The books luill be being 
}-old" As " The books exist existing," (if such tautology 
can be tolerated,) means no more than " The books exist," so 
"The books are being" cannot be made to signify anything 



SYNTAX. 357 

more than "The books are ;^^ therefore, " The books are 
heing sold" is equivalent in sense to " The books are sold" 

J. — The books don't sell : they are sold by the book- 
sellers. Why then should we express this thought in the 
active voice ? 

Mr. S. — We frequently observe effects without tracing 
them to their causes, which are either unknown or disre- 
garded ; fixing our thoughts on the objects of action and 
making them subjects. In such cases, though there is an 
actual transition of action, there is no transition of thought; 
for our thoughts are confined to their subjects, and do not 
follow the actions from agents to objects. The verbs with 
which we express such thoughts are neither in the active 
nor the passive voice : they are intransitive with a passive 
signification. A great many transitive verbs are thus used 
intransitively to express what might be expressed in the 
passive voice with less brevity and elegance ; as, " The ice 
is melting." Who would say, " The ice is heing melted,'' be- 
cause ice cannot melt itself, and must therefore be melted ? 

A verb that cannot be used intransitively with a passive 
signification should be used in the active voice when the 
progressive form is necessary ; as, " They are studying logic." 
"We are learning our lessons." We cannot properly say, 
" Logic is studying or is heing studied." " Our lessons are 
learning or are heing learned." Put the verbs in the sen- 
tences that I repeat into this new-fangled passive voice, and 
see how they will appear. 

The city was hurning. The bells luere ringing. The 
drums toere heating. The banners are waving. The house 
is huilding. There is but little doing. Wheat is selling at 
two dollars a bushel. The grain is ripening. The bread is 
hahing. The potatoes are hoiling. The meat is fryi7ig. 
There is a storm a hreiving. The heart of the minstrel is 
Ireahing. 

J, — The city was heing hurned. The bells were heing 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rung. The drums were being beaten. The banners are be- 
ing waved. The house is being built. There is but little 
being done. Wheat is being sold at two dollars a bushel. 
The grain is being ripened. The bread is being baked. The 
potatoes are being boiled. The meat is being fried. There 
is a storm a being brewed. The heart of the minstrel is be- 
ing broken. 

Mr. S. — Can such expressions be found in any of the 
English classics ? " About fifty years ago," says an eminent 
critic, " this form of speech began to affront the eye, torment 
the ear, and assault the common sense of the speakers of 
plain and idiomatic English." * 

Jfr. S. — These rules and notes comprise the main prin- 
ciples of syntax, which we will now reduce to practice. As 
I select examples of their violation, parse the erroneous ex- 
pressions and correct them. This exercise should be con- 
tinued till you can construct correctly every sentence that 
you speak or write, and clearly understand what you read. 

U. — How does parsing make us understand what we 
read ? 

Mr. S. — Can you parse a sentence that you don't under- 
stand ? 

K — No, sir : none of us can parse a sentence, without 
ascertaining its meaning and observing its construction. 

Mr. S. — Then parsing makes us cultivate a habit of find- 
ing out the meaning and observing the construction of sen- 
tences ; and thus, we are prepared for understanding what 
we read, detecting errors, and constructing sentences cor- 
rectly. 

E. — ^When a sentence is improper, can we find it out 
by parsing ? 

Mr. S. — Try a few sentences and see. Examine these 
sentences carefully, and then parse every word that seems to 



* See the Galaxy, Vol. 7, No. 3, pages 



SYNTAX. 259 

be improper. Take particular notice of the pronouns and 
the verbs ; for no other words are used improperly so often 
as these two parts of speech. 

Them that you cannot govern must be expelled. 

J. — TTiem is a personal pronoun, in either gender, plural number, 
third person, and objective case. But them is the subject of the finite 
verb must he expelled, and should therefore be in the nominative case ; 
thus, " They that you cannot govern must be expelled," according to 
Rule 1. 

He that will not obey you expel. 

R. — He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case. But he is the object of 
the verb expel, and should therefore be in the objective case ; thus, 
" Him that will not obey you expel "—Rule 3. 

Who did you receive that present from ? 

M. — Who is an interrogative pronoun, in either gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case. But who is the object of 
the preposition from, and should therefore be in the objective case; 
thus, " Whom did you receive that present from ? " — Rule 3. 

P. — It is more elegant to say, " From whom did you re- 
ceive that present ? " according to Note 3 to Eule 2.* 

J. — Can't we correct false syntax just as well without 
parsing ? 

Mr. S. — A good grammarian can parse a sentence men- 
tally as fast as he can read it, and see as quick as thought if 
any rule or note is violated. He observes its whole con- 
struction at a glance, and incorrect expressions shock him 
as blemishes in pictures do the skillful artist. If we know 
exactly how to parse a sentence, we can analyze it mentally, 
and correct it without parsing. It is not worth while to 
encumber our exercises with unnecessary repetitions of what 



* Tf your pupils have not been sufficiently drilled in parsing, let them parse a 
few examples of false syntax under every rule and note and correct the errors. 



260 ENGLISH GftAilMAR. 

we understand well enough already. I will now present you 
a few models for correcting sentences, and show you how to 
apply the rules and notes. 

Them that he invited refused to come. 

Them should bo in tlie nominative case, because it is the subject 
of the finite verb refused ; thus, " They that he invited refused to 
come ; " according to Rule 1. 

They that honor me I will honor. 

They should be in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
verb m^; honor ; thus, " Them that honor me I will honor" — Rule 2. 

Your fathers merit is not your^s. 

Fathers and your's are in the possessive case, and should therefore 
have the proper form ; thus, " Y out: father's merit is not yours " — Note 1 
to Rule 3. 

Love your enemies, even they who persecute you. 

TTiey should be in the objective case, because it is in apposition 
with enemies, the object of the verb love; thus, "Love your enemies, 
even them who persecute you " — Rule 4. 

If it is not him, who do you suppose it to be ? 

fflm should be in the nominative case, because it is in predication 
with ^Y, the subject of the finite verbis; and who should be in the 
objective case, because it is in predication with it, the object of the verb 
do suppose ; thus, " If it is not he, whom do you suppose it to be ? " — 
Rule 4. 

Him that is unjust, let him be unjust still. 

Him should be in the nominative case independent, because its 
case depends on no other word ; thus, " He that is unjust, let him be 
unjust still " — Rule 5. 

The dog is true and faithful to its master. 

Its should be in the masculine gender, because its antecedent dog 
is ; thus, " The dog is true and faithful to hi^ master " — Rule C 



S Y-N TAX. 261 

Every man must account for themselves. 

Themselves should be in the singular number, because its antece- 
dent man is singular; thus, *' Every man must account for himself" — 
Rule 6. 

Charles or Mary left their umbrella here. 

Their is improper, because its antecedents, Charles and Mary, are 
taken separately and are also in different genders, and therefore 
require the pronoun to agree with each of them separately ; thus, 
" Charles left his umbrella here, or Mary left hers " — Note 5 to 
Rule 6. 

Those set of books cost two pound. 

Those should be singular to agree with the noun set, and pound 
should be plural to agree with the adjective two ; thus, " That set of 
books cost two pounds " — Note 1 to Rule 7. 

Thee knows that we was not to blame. 

Thee should be in the nominative case, because it is the subject 
of a finite verb ; thus, " Thou knowest " — Rule 1 . 

Knows should be in the second person, because its subject thou is; 
and was should be plural, because its subject we is; thus, "Thou 
knoicest that we ^cere not to blame " — Rule 8. 

Where is John and Henry ? 

Is should be plural, because its subjects, John and Henry, are 
taken together; thus, "Where are John and Henry?" — Note 3 to 
Rule 8. 

John or Henry have broken my slate. 

Have broken should be singular, because it has two singular sub- 
jects, John and Henry, taken separately ; thus, "John or Henry has 
broken my slate " — Note 4 to Rule 8. 

I could not help pitying of him. 

Here pitying is used as a verb ; and therefore, to prevent it from 
having the construction of a noun also, of should be omitted ; thus, 
" I could not help pitying him " — Note 3 to Rules 9 and 10. 



262 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

It is founded in truth. 

In this sentence we should use on instead of in, to express the 
relation intended ; thus, " It is founded on truth " — Note 1 to Rule 11. 

He could not forbear from appointing the pope. 

Here from is unnecessary, and should therefore be omitted ; thus, 
" He could not forbear appointing the pope " — Note 2 to Rule 11. 

He never was afterwards heard of. 

To express the meaning of this sentence clearly and elegantly we 
should place the adverbs thus, " He was never heard of afterwards "— 
Note 1 to Rule 12. 

She did not say nothing against you. 

To avoid a double negative in this sentence, we should omit not 
or nothing; thus, " She said nothing against you," or " She did not 
say anything against you " — Note 2 to Rule 12. 

He neither admits or denies it. 

Or should be nor to be properly adapted to neither ; thus, " He 
neither admits nor denies it " — Note 1 to Rule 13. 

He is not either an orator nor a poet. 

Either should be neither to be properly adapted to nor; thus, 
" He is neither an orator nor a poet " — Note 1 to Rule 13. 

I do not deny but I was to blame. 

Here the sense requires that instead of hut ; thus, " I do not deny 
that I was to blame "—Note 2 to Rule 13. 

I love not man the less but I love nature the more. 

Here the repetition of Iloi^e and the encumbers the sentence, and 
should therefore be avoided ; thus, " I love not man the less, but 
nature more " — Rule 14. 

The captain had several men died of the scurvy. 

Here who is improperly omitted : it is essential to the perspicuity 
and correctness of the sentence, and should therefore be inserted; 
thus, " The captain had several men whx> died of the scurvy " — Rule 14. 



S T K T A X . 263 

Omit the fourth and fifth stanza. 

Here the adjectives /<wr<A e^n^ fifth describe diflferent stanzas, and 
therefore the should be repeated ; thus, " Omit the fourth and th£ fifth 
stanza " — Note 1 to Rule 14. 

The cat lays on the floor. 

The use of lays in this sentence is not sanctioned by good author- 
ity : lies should be used instead of lays ; thus, " The cat lies on the 
floor "—Rule 15. 

She is a better reader, but not so good a writer as Ida. 

To correspond to " she is a better reader," " as Ida " should be 
" than Ida ; " thus, " She is a better reader than Ida, but not so good 
a writer " — Rule 15. 

Iron is as useful, and even more useful than gold. 

To correspond to " iron is as useful," " than gold " should be " a* 
gold ; " thus, " Iron is as useful as gold, and even more useful " — 
Rule 15. 

This edition is essentially different, and superior to the 
first. 

To correspond to " this edition is essentially different," " to the 
first " should be ''from the first ; " thus, " This edition is essentially 
different /rom the first, and superior to it " — Rule 15. 

They poked fun at Josie, and made him awful rily. 

This sentence contains three vulgarisms and one puerility, which 
should be avoided ; thus, " They ridicvled Joseph^ and made him very 
angry" — Note 1 to Rule 15.* 



* I have made these formolas as short and plain as I could. If yon cannot 
make better ones, let your pupils use them as models for correcting sentences, till 
they can tell why any rule or note is violated without using a formula. It is better 
for them to reason for themselves, and tell why a sentence is improper, in plain, 
simple language of their own construction. Short formulas are more easily learned 
and better understood than long ones. When you correct a sentence you need not 
say it is incorrect ; for that is superfluous, because it is Implied : we cannot correct 
a sentence that is not incorrect. 



264 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



VIOLATIONS OF THE RULES AND 
NOTES. 
Rule I. 
Them that flatter us are often secret enemies. 
Thee must not think too highly of thyself. 
You and me have less experience than them. 
Whom, do you suppose, ace to blame ? 
You are much greater losers than us. 
Who tore my book ? Him and her. Who saw them ? Me. 
I can read as well as her; but she sings better than me. 

Note 1. 

Our teacher he was there, and the boys they were absent. 

This mcident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot 
doubt the author's veracity. 

Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they 
are all within his own breast. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not 
signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive 
case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are 
so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect 
genuine merit. 

Note 3. 
I was offered a book. We are denied our rights. 
Theresa was forbidden the presence of the emperor. 
We were allowed our claims. I was told the truth. 
I was promised fifty dollars. I was paid ten dollars. 
Thou art forgiven thy sins. No questions were asked me. 

Rule II. 
He and they we know, but who are you ? 
Ye, who were dead, hath he quickened. 



SYNTAX. 265 

Tlie man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 
Who should I esteem more than the wise and good ? 
He who committed the offence you should correct, not I, 
who am innocent. 

He is an author who I am much delighted with. 
We are still at a loss who civil power belongs to. 

Note 1. 

He visited, and gave me good advice. 

False accusations cannot diminish from real merit. 

He that wastes to display may soon want for bread. 

They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven 
from the house. 

Note 2. 

Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 

They sat them down and rested themselves. 

Is it a fit and decent thing to vie charities ? 

He will one day repent him of such indulgences. 

Thev have spent their whole time and pains to agree the 
sacred with the profane chronology. 

Note 3. 

He wasted, in riotous hving, all his estate. 

We could not discover, for the want of proper tests, the 
quality of the metal. 

We could not see, without the sun, the beauties of crea- 
tion. It supplies with light and heat the solar system. 

It is a book which I am much delighted with. 

He is a friend whom I am highly indebted to. 

The man whom I traveled with has sold the carriage 
which we rode in during our journey. 

EuLE III. Note 1. 
Moses' rod was turned into a serpent. 
Your ancestors glory is not your's. 
His brothers offence will not condemn him. 
13 



266 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

Asa, his heart was perfect with the Lord. 
These books are our's and, those are theirs'. 

So shall Minerva learn to fear our ire, 
Nor dare to combat her's and Nature's Sira 

Note 2. 

Adam's and Eve's first son was a murderer. 

Cain and Abel's disposition differed greatly. 

Who were Cain's and Abel's parents ? 

Is this your father or uncle's house ? 

It was my father's and mother's advice ? 

Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of 
fishermen. 

This measure gained the king, as well as the people's 
approbation. 

I had the physician, the surgeon, and the apothecary's 
assistance. 

I left it at Smith's, the bookseller's and stationer's. 

The cloth was left at Brown, the tailor's. 

I will not for David's thy father's sake. 

This palace had been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. 

Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's 
opinion also favored his cause. 

Note 3. 

He married my son's wife's sister. 

He married the sister of the wife of my son. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 

This landscape is a picture of my father. 

The severity of the distress of the son of the king touched 
the nation. 

This is my wife's brother's partner's house. 

Gravitation is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 

It was necessary to have both the physician's and the 
Burgeon's advice. 



BTKTAX. 267 

This picture of the king's does not resemble him. 

These pictures of the king were sent from Italy. 

This estate of the corporation's is much encumbered. 

The keeping of the day of the Lord is the duty of a 
Christian. 

These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet 
of the Jewish people. 

This is Paul's advice, the Christian hero, and great 
apostle of the Gentiles. 

They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they called 
him, imperious mandate. 

They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was 
called, senseless and extravagant conduct. 

Note 4. 

The ancient poet's style was bold and free. 
Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. 
Is Pierce' grammar as good as Bullions's ? 
The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses's seat. 
If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. 

EULE IV. 

Mr. Jones was there, him that bought your farm. 

I saw Mr. Jones, he that teaches our school. 

It was Peter the hermit, him that incited the crusade. 

He shot Booth the assassin, he that killed Lincoln. 

It was not him ; it was me. Is it thee ? 

Whom do you think it was ? Was it them or us ? 

Who do you fancy it to be ? These are them. 

Whom do men say that I am ? Is it her ? 

Is she the person whom she pretends to be ? 

Who did he represent himself to be ? 

Whom did they say they were ? Was it him or me ? 

He is not the man who I took him to be. 



268 english geammae. 

Rule Y. 
Him that is holy, let him be holy still. 
Her being dead, the children were neglected. 
Ah luckless me ! who put my trust in fortune. 
They were all very attentive, him and her excepted. 

But him whom royal eyes disown. 
When was his form by courtiers known ? 

Rule VI. 

The horse appears to know its master's will. 

One ought not to think too favorably of ourselves. 

The silk- worm, having spun its task, lays its eggs and dies. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Every man must think and act for themselves. 

Why is our language less refined than those of Italy, 
Spain, or France ? 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Al- 
mighty giveth them understanding. 

The feathers that adorn the royal bird support its flight; 
strip it of its plumage, and you fix it to the earth. 

Note 1. 

The little flock had lost their shepherd. 

The multitude pursue pleasure as its chief good. 

The crowd was so great that the judges with diflQculty 
made their way through them. 

The people rejoice in that which should give it sorrow. 

The council were divided in its sentiments. 

The nation was ruined by the profligacy of their nobles. 

The aristocracy despised its fellow citizens. 

The congregation was so great that no house could be 
found large enough to contain them. 

Note 2. 
Piety and virtue render its possessor truly honorable. 



SYNTAX. 269 

If you desire tranquillity and peace, seek it not at court. 
Honor and fame, what is it but A^anity and vexation ? 
Avoid pride and arrogance : it shows a want of good sense. 
Sincerity and truth are like pure gold : it loses nothing 
in the crucible of free discussion, or the furnace of affliction. 

Note 3. 

Emma, Phebe, Ruth, or Mary, lost their books. 

Neither John nor Henry learned their lessons. ' 

Charles, as well as Robert, neglected their studies. 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 
move merely as they are moved. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition 
of life ; for they may be your own lot. 

Every action, word, and thought, will be brought into 
judgment, whether they be good or evil. 

The good man, and the sinner too, will have their I'eward. 

Note 4. 

You and I, and tliey too, have done their duty. 

You and John, as well as we, have neglected our studies. 

Ruth and I, and you too, must answer for yourselves. 

Note 5. 

James or Ruth has left their umbrella. 

Did you, or John, or Phebe, lose your books ? 

I, and not John nor Phebe, lost our books. 

Must we, or you, or they, relinquish our claim ? 

The teacher, and not the children, neglected their duty. 

Our laws make the king, as well as his subjects, respon- 
sible for their actions. 

I, as well as you, must be judged according to our deeds. 

Every man, woman, and child, must account for them- 
selves. 



S7G El^GLISH GEAMMAB. 

Note 6. 

Our Father which art in heaven. 

I am verily a man which am a Jew. 

Ye are the children of them which killed the prophets. 

The eagle, who is called the royal bird, we have chosen 
as the emblem of liberty. 

The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be 
exemplary. 

The exercise of reason appears as little in these sports- 
men, as in the beasts whom they sometimes hunt, and by 
whom they are sometimes hunted. 

Note 7. 
Who is this who cometh from the north ? 
Who who has any sense of religion would argue thus ? 
The men and the things which he has studied have not 
improved his morals. 

This is the same boy who was here yesterday. 
He was the greatest madman whom the world ever saw. 
Humility is the most amiable virtue which we can possess. 
Animals which have four feet are called quadrupeds. 
The child whom we have just seen is wholesomely fed. 
He is a good dancer, which is all which he aspires to. 

Note 8. 

I am verily a man who am a Jew. 
Are you the boy that were in my garden ? 
Our legislative, judicial, and executive departments uni- 
ted, are the best form of government that were ever known. 
Thou who has been a witness of the fact canst relate it. 

What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown. 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? 

Note 9. 
I am not a person who promotes useless severity, and who 
object to mild and generous treatment. 



SYNTAX. 271 

I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, and who 
maintains the propriety of such measures. 

I perceive that thou art a pupil who possesses bright 
parts, but who hast cultivated them but little. 

You are a friend that has often relieved me, and that 
have not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need. 

I am the Lord thy God, who teacheth thee to profit, and 
who lead thee in the way thou shouldst go. 

Thou art he who breathest on the earth with tl^e breath 
of spring, and who covereth it with verdure and beauty. 

Note 10. 

Though you are great, yet thou art but a man. 

If you do not respect yourself, who will respect thee ? 

They are men who know their rights, and that will main- 
tain them. 

He is the man that saved his country, and whom we de- 
light to honor. 

He that preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I 
am and whom I serve, is eternal. 

Note 11. 

Here are four books : take either of them. 

Neither of these three poets equals Homer. 

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 

All of us will receive our penny. 

Set one shoe on both of my horses. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations : this excites 
pride ; that, discontent. 

I am the king, who ask your hospitality. 

Some think they have a clear conscience, who are clear 
of conscience. 

They attacked Northumberland's house, whom they put 
to death. 



27'^ EN"GLISH QKAMMAE. 

Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship with thee, 
which frameth mischief by law ? 

If we trace a youth from the earliest period of life, who 
has been well educated, we shall perceive the wisdom of the 
maxims here recommended. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry; 
who had never before committed so unjust an action. 

Note 12. 

Errors in thinking lead to those in speaking. 

A difference of opinion is not always one of principle. 

Many are captivated by the power of eloquence who do 
Dot know wherein it consists. 

We instantly perceive the beauty of a landscape without 
considering the cause of it. 

Men look with an evil eye upoa the good that is in others, 
and think that their reputation obscures them, and their 
commendable qualities stand in their light; and therefore 
they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the 
bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them. 

Rule VII. Note 1. 

I have not traveled this twenty years. 

I am not recommending these kind of sufferings. 

Those sort of pleasures must be avoided. 

The ditch is fifty rod long and four foot deep. 

I sold forty ton of hay and a thousand bushel of wheat. 

Charles was extravagant; and by these means he be- 
came poor. 

Joseph was industrious, frugal, and discreet; and by 
this means he obtained property and reputation. 

Note 2. 

Every earthly happiness is short and evanescent. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 



SYNTAX. 2T3 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. 
The light and the worthless kernels will float. 
Xot a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
He is a better writer than a reader. 
On either side of the river was there the tree of life. 
True happiness is not the meteor that occasionally glares. 
America is illustrious for high trees and tall mountains, 
spacious prairies, sublime waterfalls, and splendid lakes ! 

Note 3. 

They are generous, honest, faithful, and kind. 

He wore an old pair of boots with a new suit of clothes. 

I bought an excellent span of horses, a silver-plated set- 
of harness, and a new splendid carriage. 

Have you any black ladies' gloves, and red children's 
stockings ? 

He is a very good, learned, judicious, old man. 

They are good-for-nothing, idle, shiftless, lazy fellows. 

Diana of the Ephesians is great ! 

Thy ways are just and true, thou King of saints ! 

Note 4. 
A ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 
An hundred thousand dollars were expended. 
It is an useless waste of time and money. 
He is a honest man — such an one as can be safely trusted. 

Note 5. 
He speaks very slow and deliberate. 
Such seeds are likely to take soonest and deepest root. 
Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. 
The sun shines dimly, and the weather is extreme cold. 

Note 6. 
Iron is more useful than all the metals. 
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He is the stronger of the two, but not the wiser. 
Gold is heavier and more vakiable than any metaL 
Russia is larger than any empire in the world. 
The sun is the brightest of all the planets. 
Of all other metals iron is the most useful. 

Note 7. 

This was the most unkindest cut of all. 

Hers is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 

It is more easier to build two chimneys than to main- 
tain one. 

The tongue, like a race-horse, runs the faster the lesser 
weight it carries. 

Note 8. 

These two lines are more parallel than those. 

His assertion was truer than that of his opponent. 

The quarrel became so universal and national. 

Your picture is more perfect than mine. 

It is so perfect that I will not attempt to improve it. 

He is a man of most unexceptional character. 

He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the 
truest friendship. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and should 
be his chiefest desire. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable 
than those of the imagination, or of sense. 

EULE YIII. 

We was invited. Where was you last night ? 

Thou sees how little have been done. 

A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. 

Thou should love thy neighbor as thyself. 

There was more impostors than one. 

The ship, with all her crew and passengers, were lost 



SYiq^TAX. 275 

In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 
The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the tri- 
angle. 

In him were happily blended true dignity with softness 

of manners. 

A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for 
friendship. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. > 

Note 1. 
The mob were soon dispersed by the police. 
A large fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
The fleet has all arrived, and every ship is moored. 
When the nation boil the scum must rise. 
The people has no confidence in the government. 
The audience was very attentive and respectful. 

Note 2. 

Smoking and chewing tobacco are forbidden. 
To do wrong and then deny it are a double sin. 
How loved, how valued once, avail thee not. 
Speaking unkindly or impatiently show ill breeding. 
To fear God and keep his commandments are the whole 
duty of man. 

Note 3. 

Time and chance happeneth to them all. 
Sincerity and truth forms the basis of every virtue. 
Under his tongue is mischief and vanity. 
Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. 
In unity consists the welfare and security of every 
society. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

So much ability and merit is seldom found. 

To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevo- 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

lence towards others, and to cultivate piety towards God, is 
the sure means of becoming peaceful and happy. 

Where envy and strife is, there is confusion and every 
evil work. 

His prudence and caution has saved your dominions. 

"Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden medi- 
ocrity. 

Much does human pride and self-complacency require 
correction. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when 
youth think they have no need of assistance ? 

Humility and love, whatever obscurities may involve re- 
ligious tenets, constitutes the essence of true religion. 

KOTE 4. 

William, John, or Robert, have broken this slate. 

Neither Mary, Emma, Ruth, nor Phebe, were there. 

Death or some worse misfortune soon divide them. 

The mother, and not the child, are to blame. 

Not only his estate, his reputation too have suffered. 

The king, as well as the queen, were present. 

Not only the king, but the queen also were insulted. 

The king, and also the queen have read your poems. 

The king, and the queen too, were beheaded. 

Every leaf and every drop of water teem with life. 

Each day, each hour and minute, have a present, past, 
and future. 

No beast, no bird, no insect, and no particle of matter, 
were created for itself alone. 

Note 5. 

You or I are to be the speaker. 
Neither the sailors nor the captain was saved. 
Both of the boys, or one of them at least, was there. 
The drunkard, and not his family, are to blame. 



SYNTAX. 277 

The captain, and the sailors also, were intoxicated. 
You, or I, or John, are entitled to the prize. 

Note 6. 

The saint, the father, and the hnsband, pray. 

This celebrated philosopher, patriot, and statesman, like 
many other eminent men, are of humble origin. 

This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and anti- 
quarian, were entirely destitute of breeding and civility. 

Note 7. 

The positions were, as appears, incontrovertible. 

He was a man whose inclinations let him to be corrupt, 
and had great abilities to manage the business. 

If the storm in which he was born, and lasted so long, 
had continued. 

These curiosities we have imported from China, and aro 
similar to those which were brought from Africa. 

Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind. 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

EuLES IX AND X. Note 1. 

He bids me to come. You need not to help me. 
I could feel the earth to shake beneath my feet. 
Dare they to disobey me, or to question my authority? 
The multitude wondered, when they saw the lame to 
walk, and the blind to see. 

Note 2. 
I have commenced to study grammar. 
I stopped to drink rum, and left off to use tobacco. 
I abhor to be a drunkard. Who can help to pity her? 
I could not avoid to laugh heartily at his drollery. 
Who can forbear to admire their fidelity? 



278 eijglish gkammar. 

Note 3. 

By doing of onr duty we generally secure success. 
By our doing our duty we generally secure success. 
This was betraying of the trust reposed in him. 
In forming of his sentences he was very exact. 
By his studying the Scriptures he became wise. 
Never do anything unbecoming your dignity. 
Is such language as this becoming a gentleman ? 
Can we be wise and good without our taking pains f 

Note 4. 

By living temperately our health is preserved. 

Looking out of my window, the whole fleet can be seen. 

By admitting the premises the conclusion is established. 

Is it your intention to go home next week ? 

It affords great pleasure to assist my friends. 

Is it your expectation to secure universal liberty? 

It is my desire to live in peace with all mankind. 

Note 5. 

Takmg another^s property secretly is theft. 

It is hard teaching old dogs new tricks. 

I forgot telling you of our riding on the cars. 

Doing right is always expedient. I intend paying you. 

Drinking moderately often leads to intemperance. 

A good man asks no reward for to do his duty. 

His disobeying orders was the cause of our being defeated. 

Our being rich does not make us happy, nor does our 
being poor make us miserable. 

The time of his leaving home, and seeking his fortune 
in the wide world, had arrived. 

What is the cause of your being so disconsolate ? 

Do you doubt him to be good and merciful ? 

I do not believe them to be in earnest ? 



SYNTAX. 279 

We should not be like many persons, to depreciate the 
virtues we do not possess. 

Note 6. 

The bread that has been eat is soon forgot. 
They haye chose the part of honor and virtue. 
He heapt up riches, but past his time miserably. 
He dared not commit so great an offence! 
He had mistook his true interest, and found himself for- 
sook by his former adherents. 

A second deluge learning thus o'errun. 

And the monks finished what the Goths begua 



Rule XL Note 1. 

They are resolved of doing their duty. 

We confided on him. He died with a fever. 

He was totally dependent of the Papal crown. 

She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct 

He was accused with having acted unfairly. 

This is a principle in unison to our nature. 

I do likewise dissent with the examiner. 

Their conduct was agreeable with their profession. 

Note 2. 

They were a considerable distance from home. 
More than a thousand of men were killed. 
From whence come wars and fightings among you ? 
I live opposite the park. I write him frequently. 
The book is approved of by all who understand it 

Note 3. 

I wrote to, and advised him to come home. 

They broke into, and drove my family from the house. 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He was guided by interests alwa3^s different from, and 
sometimes contrary to, those of the community. 

He blew out his brains, after bidding his wife farewell, 
with a shot gun. 

These verses were written by a young man who has long 
lain in his grave, for his own amusement. 

EuLE XII. Note 1. 

William nobly acted, though he was unsuccessfuL 

He has been generally reckoned an honest man. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

These rules will clearly be understood after they have 
diligently been studied. 

Instead of looking contemptuously down on the crooked 
in mind or in body, we should look up thankfuUy to God, 
who has made us better. 

My opinion was given on rather a cursory perusal of the 
book. 

The women contributed all their rings and jewels volun- 
tarily to assist the government. 

We are apt to be engrossed and overcome totally by 
present events. 

Vice creeps always by degrees, and twines around us in- 
sensibly those concealed fetters by which we are completely 
bound, at last. 

He was determined to invite back the king, and to caU 
together his friends. 

Note 2. 

I cannot, by no means, admit your excuse. 
Never no imitator grew up to his author. 
The king nor the queen was not at all deceived. 
I have received no information on the subject, neither 
from him nor from his friends. 



SYNTAX. 281 

Neither riches nor honor, nor no such perishing goods, 
can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit. 

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 

Note 3. 

Never sovereign was so beloved by the people. 
Know now whether it be thy son's coat or no. 
Whither have they been ? Where did they come from ? 
I will pay you as quick as I receive my wages. , 
He darted out of sight as soon as a flash of lightning. 

KuLE XIII. Note 1. 

What else are you but a robber ? 

Have you no other books but these ? 

Germany ran the same risk as Italy had done. 

Such was his eloquence as it made Felix tremble. 

There was something so amiable, and yet so piercing in 
his look, as affected me, at once, with love and terror. 

As far as I can judge, he is not as great a poet as Cowper, 
nor as good a man. 

Beware of such who ridicule or censure others. 

His character is such as I cannot recommend him. 

He is neither honest or capable. 

He sent such a reply that cost him his life. 

Was Cicero so great an orator as Demosthenes ? 

It is neither capable of pleasing the understanding or 
the imagination. 

Note 2. 

We were afraid lest the ship might run aground. 
He has little more of the scholar but the name. 
I have no doubt but all the planets are inhabited. 
You may stay here while they return. 
The resolution was not the less fixed, that the secret was 
yet communicated to very few. 



282 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Rule XIV. 

1 gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. 

These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dictates 
of true honor. 

They who sow and reap will rejoice together. 

His reputation and his estate were lost by gaming. 

The more I see of his conduct, I like him better. 

He told us not only the year, but day and hour. 

We must obey the laws of God and the laws of man. 

The anxious man is the votary of riches ; the negligent, 
of pleasure. 

This intelligence not only excited our hopes, but fears too. 

When such a man as Socrates fell a victim to the madness 
of the people, truth, virtue, religion, fell with him. 

Note 1. 

I have an ancient and modern history. 
They killed the old and young birds. 
How many white and black sheep have you ? 
Here are six apples, three sweet and sour ones. 
I have carefully studied the Old and New Testament. 
The Atlantic ocean separates the eastern and western 
continent. 

Rule XV. 

My friend was so ill that he could not set up at all, but 
was obliged to lay continually in bed. 

Galileo discovered the telescope ; and Hervey invented 
the circulation of the blood. 

A traveler observes the most striking objects he sees ; a 
general remarks all the motions of his enemy. 

Disputing should always be so managed as to remember 
that the end of it is truth. 

A hermit is rigorous in his life ; a judge, austere in his 
sentences. 



SYNTAX. 283 

We have enlarged our family and expenses, and increased 
our garden and orchard. 

A candid man avows his mistakes, and is forgiven ; a 
patriot acknowledges his opposition to a bad minister, and 
is applauded. 

By proper reflection we may be taught to mend what is 
erroneous and defective. 

A good man is not overcome by disappointment, when 
that which is mortal passes away, when that, which is 
mutable dies, and when that which he knew to be transient 
begins to change. 

We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen. 

She is not so good a singer, but a better reader than Ida. 

No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the morti- 
fications, as he has done to-day. 

When they had kindled a fire in the midst of the hall, 
and were set down together, Peter set down among them. 

Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable than 
knowledge. 

The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and his tongue 
loosened, glorified the great Physician. 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the 
work. 

The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks 
the teeth of the common law. 

By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who 
know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a 
private and retired education. 

The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of 
many, might and probably were good. 

The court of France or England was to have been the 
umpire. 

It was an unsuccessful undertaking ; which, although it 
has failed, is no objection at all to an enterprise so well 
concerted. 



384 ENGLISH GRAMMA r.. 

Groves, fields, and meadows, are, at any season of the 
year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as in the 
opening of the spring. 

Note 1. 

Much counterfeit money is being circulated. 

The furnace is being heated. The ore is being melted. 

The turkey is being roasted, and the pies are being baked. 

They are being taught arithmetic and grammar. 

Your children are being educated improperly, they are 
being brought up in idleness. 

These are splendid peaches. How beautiful they taste ! 

Do you love peaches ? Mighty well indeed, sir. 

I wist not what to say. I wot well where he is. 

She readeth and writeth better than he doth. 

It snew dreadful fast. The Avind blowed awful hard. 

Have you writ to-day ? I haint got any ink. 

See them boys. Bring me that there book. 

Them there apples are better than these 'ere. 

What for a man is he? He is a tip-top scholar. 

The Mohawk heads in Lewis county, and empties into 
the Hudson. 

Note 2. 

If thou have determined, we must submit. 

It is sewn very neatly. The meadows are overflown. 

Unless he have consented, the writing will be void. 

Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

If thou live virtuously, thou art happy. 

Unless he mean what he says, he is doubly faithless. 

I will go to-morrow, unless it rains. 

Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

If I was hungry, I would not tell thee. 

Though virtue appear severe, she is truly amiable. 

Shall then this verse to future age pretend. 
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend ? 



SYNTAX. 285 

He that was dead, sat up and began to speak. 

The next new-year's day I shall be at school three years. 

I came where he was; but he wan't there. 

He will earn his wages when his service is completed. 

The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away. 

I remember the family more than twenty years. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me now three days. 

Ye will not come unto me that ye might havelife. 

Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. 

I intended to have written sooner. 

I thought I should have lost it before I reached home. 

From a conversation I had with him, he appeared to 
have been a man of letters. 

The doctor said that fever always produced thirst. 

I expected to have seen him before he left home. 

I will be drowned : nobody shall help me. 

They that shall not work should not eat. 

The mighty rivals are now at length agreed. 

From this rule we are infinitely swerved. 

Their number was now amounted to three hundred. 

The obligation of that law was also ceased. 

He was entered into a conspiracy against his master. 

Such trifles had'nt ought to be taken notice of. 

Profane language should never be made use of. 



EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX, 

PROMISCUOUSLY COLLECTED. 

They that befriend you remember, and they that injure 
you forget. 

Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who created and re- 
deemed us. 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

On these two causes depend all the happiness or misery 
which exist among men. 

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, 
yet, if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he will be 
forgiven. 

By these attainments are the master honored, and the 
scholars encouraged. 

The property of James, (I mean his books and furni- 
ture,) were wholly destroyed. 

In this place, there were not only security, but abun- 
dance of provisions. 

That writer has given an account of the manner in 
which Christianity has formerly been propagated among 
the heathens. 

The sea appeared to be more than usually agitated. 

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon 
us, shall deliver us from it in due time. 

Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to come 
into the world, and hast been so long promised and desired. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, un- 
derstand the nature of the religion they reject. 

It was no exaggerated tale ; for she was really in that 
sad condition that her friend represented her. 

Thomas disposition is better than his brothers ; and he 
appears to be the happiest man : but some degree of trouble 
is all mens portion. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. 
Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow lit- 
tle differences. 

An army present a painful sight to a feehng mind. 

Time and chance happeneth to all men ; but every per- 
son do not consider who govern those powerful causes. 

Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it 
will awake surely in adversity. 

Habits must be acquired of temperance and of self- 



SYNTAX. 287 

denial, that we may be able to resist pleasure, and to endure 
pain, when either of them interfere with our duty. 

The active mind of man never or seldom rests satisfied 
with their present condition, howsoever prosperous. 

It is an invariable law to our present condition, that 
every pleasure that are pursued to excess, convert them- 
selves into poison. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to 
seek revenge is the duty of a Christian. 

How much is real virtue and merit exposed to suffer the 
hardships of a stormy life ! 

I cannot yield to such dishonorable conduct, neither at 
the present moment of diflQcuity nor, I trust, under no cir- 
cumstances whatever. 

If a man profess a regard for the duties of religion, and 
neglect that of morality, that man's religion is vain. 

The polite accomplished libertine is but miserable amidst 
all his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier 
than him. 

Whence have there arose such a great variety of opinions 
and tenets in religion ? 

Every church and sect of people have a set of opinions 
peculiar to themselves. 

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the 
Athenians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical 
power in Athens. 

Who is that whom I saw you introduce, and present 
him to the duke ? 

They that honor me, them will I honor. 

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them, as 
well as many things to excite disgust. 

Its stature is less than a man; but its strength and 
agility much greater. 

There is not, nor ought not to be, such a thing as con* 
structive treason. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Hatred or revenge are things deserving of censure, 
wherever they are found to exist. 

A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the 
mind. 

May thou, as well as me, be meek, patient, and forgiving. 

I have lately been in Gibraltar, and have seen the com- 
mander in chief. 

These men were under high obligation to have adhered 
to their friend in every situation of life. 

James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a cruel 
amusement. 

His speech contains one of the grossest and infamousest 
calumnies which ever was uttered. 

The not attending to this rule is the source of a very 
common error. 

Propriety of pronunciation is the giving to every word 
the sound which the politest usage of the language appro- 
priates to it. 

Calumny and detraction are sparks, which, if you do not 
blow, they will go out themselves. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 

I beg the favor of your acceptance of a copy of a view of 
the manufactories of the West Eiding of the county of York. 

This treaty was made at earl Moreton the governor's castle. 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless 
professions. 

He has little more of the great man besides the title. 

The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves on so 
popular a subject. 

That picture of the emperor's is a very exact resemblance 
of him. 

All the power of ridicule, aided by the desertion of 
friends, and the diminution of his estate, were not able to 
shake his principles. 



SYNTAX. 289 

Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers are 
deserted. 

I have not, nor shall not consent to a proposal so unjust. 

Though the measure be mysterious, it is worthy of at- 
tention. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lies in three words ; health, peace, and competence. 

When a string of such sentences succeed one 'another, 
the effect is disagreeable. 

Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great. 

He showed a spirit of forgiveness and a magnanimity, 
that does honor to human nature. 

The new set of curtains did not correspond to the old 
pair of blinds. 

Every member of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle, 
lie exposed to many disorders ; and the greatest prudence, 
or precaution, or the deepest skill of the physician, are not 
sufficient to prevent them. 

Steady application, as well as genius and abilities, are 
necessary to produce eminence. 

It is not the uttering or the hearing certain words that 
constitute the worship of the Almighty. It is the heart 
that praises, or prays. If the heart accompany not the words 
that are spoken, we offer a sacrifice of fools. 

We should be careful not to follow the example of many 
persons, to censure the opinions, manners, and customs of 
others, merely because they are foreign to us. 

The furniture was all purchased at Wentworth's the 
joinei-'s. 

They were solicitous to ingratiate with those who it was 
dishonorable to favor. 

What can be the reason of the committee having delayed 
this business ? 

This is thie person who we are so much obliged to, and 



290 ENGLISH GKAHMAR. 

who we expected to have seen when the favor was con- 
ferred. 

Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable that 
grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnished ma- 
terials of pious admiration. 

They understand the practical part better than him ; but 
he is much better acquainted with the theory than them. 

His conduct was so provoking, that many will condemn 
him, and a few will pity him. 

Temperance, more than medicines, are the proper means 
of curing many diseases. 

While we are unoccupied in what is good, evil is at hand 
continually. 

Every thing that we here enjoy, change, decay, and come 
to an end. All float on the surface of the river, which is 
running to a boundless ocean, with a swift current 

CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

Tliey that flatter us. Thou must not think.* You and / have 
less experience than they. Who, do you suppose, are to blame ? You 
are much greater losers than we. He and she. I. As well as she — 
than/. 

Notes to Rule I. 

1. Our teacher was there, and the boys were absent. Though this 
incident appears improbable. Though man has great variety of 
thoup^hts. When two substantives come together. However virtue 
may be neglected. 2. A book was offered me. Our rights are denied 
us. The presence of the emperor was forbidden Theresa. Our 
claims were allowed lis. The truth was told me. Fifty dollars were 
promised me. Ten dollars were paid me. Thy sins are forgiven thee. 
I was asked no questions. 

* In correcting these sentences I have carefully avoided the use of needles? 
wordp, and only taken enough of each example to make the correction cleariy un- 
derstood. The Btndent or teacher should supply what is omitted, and repeat the 
whole of each sentence properly corrected. 



SYNTAX. 291 

RULE II. 

Him and them we know. Tou, wlio were dead, hath he quick- 
ened. Whom he raised. Whom should I esteem ? Him you should 
correct, not me. With whom. To whom. 

Notes to Rule II. 

1. He visited me. False accusations cannot diminish real merit. 
He that wastes his money to display his riches may soon want bread. 
They were refused entrance into the house, and forcibly driven from 
it. 3. Flee away. They sat down and rested. To vie with charities. 
Repent of such indulgences. To make the sacred chronology agree 
with the profane. 3. He wasted all his estate in riotous living. For 
the want of proper tests, we could not discover the quality of the 
metal. Without the sun, we could not see the beauties of creation. 
It supplies the solar system with light and heat. It is a book with 
which I am much delighted. To whom I am highly indebted. With 
whom I traveled — in which we rode. 



Notes to Rule III. 

1. Moses's rod. Your ancestors' glory is not yours. His brother's 
offence. Asa's heart. Ours, llieirs. Hers. 2. Adam and Eve's 
first son. Cain's and Abel's disposition. Who were Cain and Abel's 
parents? Is this yonr father's or uncle's house? It was mj father 
and mother's advice. Peter, John, and Andrew's occupation. The 
king's. I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's 
assistance. At Smith's, the bookseller and stationer. At Brown's, the 
tailor. For David thy father's sake. The grand sultan Mahomet's. 
The counsel and attorney's. 3. The sister of my son's wife, or my 
son's sister-in-laiD. The government o/the icorld. One of my father's 
pictures. The severe distress of the king's son. This house belongs to 
the partner of my wife's brother. One of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. 
The advice of the physician and the surgeon. This picture of the 
king. These pictures of the king's. This estate of the corporation. 
The keeping of the Lord's day. These are the psalms of David. This 
is the advice of Paul. The imperious mandate of the protector. The 
senseless and extravagant conduct of the prodigal. 4. The ancient 
poets' style. For conscience' sake. Is Pierce's grammar as good as 
BuUUms' ? Moses' seat. For righteousness' sake. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE IV. 

ne tliat bouglit your farm. Him tliat teaches our school. He 
that incited the crusade. Him that killed Lincoln. It was not he ; it 
was /. Is it thou f Who do you think it was ? Was it they ov we f 
Whom do you fancy it to be ? These are they. Who do men say that 
I am ? Is it she ? Is she the person who she pretends to be ? Whom 
did he represent himself to be ? Who did they say they were ? Was 
it he or I? He is not the man whom I took him to be. 

RULE V. 

He that is holy. She being dead. Ah luckless I! He and she 
excepted. But he whom royal eyes disown. 

RULE VI. 

His master's will. Of one's self. Having spun her task, lays her 
eggs. And put it on Jacob. For himself. Than that of Italy, Spain 
or France ? Giveth him understanding. Support his flight : strip him 
of his plumage, and you fix him to the earth. 

Notes to Rule VI. 

1. 7^5 shepherd. Their chiQl good. Through it. Which should 
give thein sorrow. In their sentiments. Its nobles. Their fellow-citi- 
zens. To contain it. 2. TJidr possessor. Seek them not at court. 
What are they ? They show a want of good sense. TJiey lose nothing. 
3. Her books. His lessons. His studies. Which moves merely as it 
is moved. It may be your own lot. Whether it be good or evil. His 
reward. 4. Our duty. Your studies. For ourselves. 5. James has 
left his umbrella, or Ruth has left hers. Did you lose your books ? or 
did John lose his? or Phebe, hers? I lost my books. Must we relin- 
quish our claim? or you, yours? or they, theirs? His duty. His ac- 
tions. My deeds. Every man must account for himself, and so must 
every woman and every child. 6. Who art in heaven. W7i0 am a 
Jew. Who killed the prophets. Whicli is called the royal bird. 
Which gives currency to manners. Which they sometimes hunt, and 
by which they are sometimes hunted. 7. That cometh. ITiat has any 
sense. IViat he has studied. That was here. T?iat the world ever 
saw. Thai we can possess. Uiat have four feet. T/iat we have 
just seen. All that he aspires to. 

8. Who is a Jew. That was in my garden ? That was ever known. 



SYNTAX. 293 

Who hast been a witness. Thus rangest * the camp alone. 9. And 
who objects to mild and generous treatment. Who maintain the pro- 
priety of such measures. But who has cultivated them but little. That 
has not deserted me. Who leadeth thee. Who hreathes on the earth — 
and who coiers it with verdure and beauty. 10. You are but a man. 
W^ho will respect you^ Who will maintain them. He is the man 
wAo saved his country. He i«A(? preserves me. 11. Take aw^ of them. 
N^oiie of these three poets. Bach of them. Bacli of us will receive 
7ils penny. On each of my horses. Thai excites pride ; this, discon- 
tent. I, who ask your hospitality, am the king. Some who are clear 
of conscience. The house of Northumberland. Shall the throne of 
iniquity, which frameth mischief by law, have fellowship with thee ? 
If, from the earliest period of life, we trace a youth who has been v^^ell 
educated. The king, who had never before committed so unjust an 
action, dismissed his minister without any inquiry. 12. Lead to errors 
in speaking. Is not always a difference of principle. Many, who do 
not know wherein eloquence consists, are captivated by its power. 
Without considering the cause of its heauty. We look with an evil 
eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation 
obscures us, and their commendable qualities stand in our light, and 
therefore we do what we can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright 
shining of their virtues may not obscure us. 

Notes to Rule VII. 

1. These twenty years. This kind. That sort. Fifty rods long 
and ioviT feet deep. Forty tons — a thousand bushels. By this means. 
By these means. 2. All earthly happiness is short and transitory. 
Reason was given to man. The title of duke. The light and worth- 
less kernels. Nor a sign given. Than reader. On each side. A me- 
teor. America is famous for tall trees and high mountains, extensive 
prairies, magnificent waterfalls, and beautiful lakes. 3 They are faith- 
ful, honest, kind, and generous. He wore a pair of old boots with a 
suit of new clothes. I bought a span of excellent horses, a set of sil- 
ver-plated harness, and a splendid new carriage. Black gloves for 
ladies, and red stockings for children. He is a very learned, judi- 
cious, good old man. They are lazy, idle, shiftless, good-for-nothing 
fellows. Great is Diana ! Just and true are thy ways ! 

4. An ounce. A hundred. A useless waste. An honest man — 

• Strict grammatical propriety and melody are here at variance. Melocly claims 
a poetic license, which is generally allowed by critics. 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Buch a one. 5. Slowly and deliherately. The earliest and deepest root. 
So amiable a disposition. The sun sliines dim, and the weather is ex- 
tremely cold. 6. Iron is more useful than all the other metals. Eve 
yvdiS fairer than any of her daughters. He is the strongest of the two, 
but not the wisest. Gold is heavier and more valuable than any other 
metal. Russia is the largest empire in the world. The sun is brighter 
than any of the planets. Of all metals iron is the most useful. 7. The 
unkindest cut. The sweetest voice. It is easier. The less weight. 
8. Nearer parallel. Nearer true. So general. Nearer perfect than 
mine. So near perfect. Of unexceptional character. He gave a full 
and sincere proof of true friendship. Supreme dignity — his chief de- 
sire. Preferable to those of the imagination, or of sense. 

RULE VIII. 

We were invited. Where were you ? Thou seest how little has 
been done. Has been conferred. Thou shouldst love. There were. 
Was lost. Consists. Composes. Was happily blended. Prepares us. 
Makes us wish for more. 

Notes to Rule VIII. 

1. Was soon dispersed. Was seen. Have all arrived. When the 
nation toils. Have no confidence. The audience icere. 2. Is forbid- 
den. Is a double sin. Avails thee not. Shows ill-breeding. Is the 
whole duty of man. 3. Happen to them all. Form. Are. Proceed. 
Consist. Bemove mountains. A re seldom found. Are the sure means. 
Where envy and strife are, there are confusion and every evil work. 
Have saved you dominions. Dwell. Do require. What signify. Con- 
stitute. 4. Has broken this slate. Was there. Soon divides them. 
Is to blame. Has suffered. Was present. Was insulted. Has read. 
Was beheaded. Teems with life. Has a present, past, and future. 
Was created. 5. You are to be the speaker, or I am. Neither were 
the sailors saved, nor was the captain. Both of the boys icere there, 
or one of them at least. Is to blame. The captain icas intoxicated, 
and the sailors also. You are entitled to the prize, or I am., or John 
is. 6. Prays. Is of humble origin. Was entirely destitute. 7, As 
it appears. And who had great abilities. And which lasted so long. 
And they are similar. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ? 

Notes to Rules IX and X. 

1. He bids me come. You need not help me. I could feel the 
earth shake. Dare they disobey me, or question my authority ? When 



SYNTAX. 295 

they saw the lame walk, and the blind see. 2. I have commenced 
studying. I stopped drinking rum, and left o^ using tobacco. I abhor 
being a drunkard. Who can help pitying her? I could not avoid 
lavghing. Who can forbear admiring their fidelity ? 3. By doing 
our duty. This was a betraying of the trust. In forming his sen- 
tences. By studying the Scriptures. Unbecoming to your dignity. 
Becoming to a gentleman ? Without taking pains. 4. We preserve 
our health, / can see the whole fleet. We establish the conclusion. 
Do you intend to go ? It affords me great pleasure. Do you expect to 
secure universal liberty ? / desire to live in peace. 5. To take an- 
other's property. It is hard to teach old dogs. I forgot to tell you of 
our ride on the cars. To do right. I intend to pay you. Moderate 
drinking. For doing his duty. His disobedience to orders was the 
cause of our defeat. Our riches do not make us happy, nor does our 
poverty make us miserable. The time for him to leave home and 
seek his fortune. Why are you so disconsolate ? Do you doubt his 
goodness and mercy f I do not believe that they are in earnest. Who 
depreciate the virtues they do not possess. 6. The bread that haa 
been eaten is ^oon forgotten. They have chosen. He heaped up 
riches, but passed his time miserably. He durst not. He had mis- 
taken his true interest, and found himself forsaken. 

A second deluge learning thus derran. 

And the monks finished what the Goths began. 

Notes to Rule XI. 

1. Resolved on doing their duty. In him. Of a fever. Depend- 
ent on the Papal crown. Abhorrence of all deceitful conduct. He 
was accused of having acted unfairly. In unison icith our nature. 
Dissent from the examiner. Agreeable to their professions. 2. At a 
considerable distance. A thousand men. Whence come wars ? Op- 
posite to the park. I write to him. Approved by all. 3. I wrote to 
him. They broke into the house. Always different from those of the 
community, and sometimes contrary to them. He blew out his brains 
with a shot-gun, after bidding his wife farewell. These verses were 
written, for his own amusement, by a young man who has long lain 
in his grave. 

Notes to Rule XII. 

1. William acted nobly. He has generally been reckoned an hen- 
est man. We should always prefer our duty. To be at work contin- 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1^15!%. These rules will be clearly understood after they have been 

diligently studied. Instead of looking down contemptuously we 

should thankfully look up. On a rather cursory perusal. The women 
xoluntarily contributed all their rings and jewels. To be totaUy en- 
grossed and overcome. Vice ahcays creeps by degrees, and insensibly 
twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are, at last, 
completely bound. To invite the king dacJc, and to call his friends 
together. 2. I cannot, by any means, or I can, by no means, admit 
your excuse. Never did any imitator grow, or no imitator ever grew 
up to his author. Neither the king nor the queen was at all deceived. 
Either from him or from his friends. Neither riches nor honor, nor 
any such perishing goods. There cannot be any thing. 3. No sove- 
reign was eter so beloved. Whether it be thy son's coat or 7? 0^. Where 
have they been ? Whence (or fi^om uhat place) did they come ? As 
soon as I receive my wages. As quick as a flash of lightning. 

Notes to Rule XIII, 

1. What else are you than a robber ? or, What are you but a rob- 
ber ? Have you no other books than these ? or no books but these ? 
That Italy had done. That it made Felix tremble. As to affect me, 
or that it afiFected me. So far as I can judge, he is not so great a poet 
as Cowper, nor so good a man. Such as ridicule or censure others. 
That I cannot recommend him. He is neither honest nor capable. 
As cost him his life. Was Cicero as great an orator as Demosthenes ? 
It is not capable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagina- 
tion. 2 That the ship might run aground. Than the name. That 
all the planets are inhabited. Till they return. Though the secret 
was yet communicated to very few. 

RULE XIV. 

I gladly shunned him who gladly fled from me. The dictates of 
virtue and of true honor. They who sow and they icho reap. His 
reputation and estate were lost. The better I like him. But t?ie day 
and the hour. The laws of God and man. The negligent man, the 
totdry of pleasure. But mxr fears too. Truth, and virtue, and reli- 
gion fell with him. 

Note 1. An ancient and a modern history. The old and the 
young birds. How many white sheep, and hoxo many black ones have 
you? Here are six apples, three sweet and three sour ones. The Old 
and the New Testament. The eastern and the western continent. 



BYKTAX. 297 



RULE XV. 

He could not sit up at all, but was obliged to lie continually in bed. 
Galileo invented the telescope, and Hervey discovered the circulation 

of the blood. A traveler remarks a general observes. As to 

remind us that the end of it is truth. A hermit is austere ; a judge, 
rigorous. We. have increased our family and expenses, and enlarged 

our garden and orchard. AcTcnoicledges his mistakes avoics his 

opposition. To correct v^^hat is erroneous, and to supply what is de- 
fective. When that which is mortal dies, when that which is mutable 
begins to change, and when that which he knew to be transient passes 
away. We speak what we do know, and testify that ichich we have 
seen. She is not so good a singer as Ida, but a better reader. No 
person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day, or sustained such 
mortifications. And had sat down together, Peter sat down among 
them. Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even more valuable. 
And ichose tongue was loosened. 

The work has received several alterations and additions. Mitigates 
the common laio and breaks its teeth. We may improve a private and 
retired education, and rub off its rust. Might have been and probably 
were good. The court of France or that of England was to be the 
umpire. It was an unsuccessful undertaking ; the failure of which is, 
however, no objection at all to an enterprise so well concerted. But 
never so much so, or never so beautiful, as in the opening of the 
spring. 

Notes to Rule XV. 

1. Much counterfeit money is circulating. The furnace is heating. 
The ore is melting. The turkey is roasting, and the pies are baking. 
They are taught arithmetic and grammar. You are educating your 
children improperly : you are bringing them up in idleness. These 
are excellent peaches. How delicious they taste ! Do you like peaches ? 
Very well indeed, sir. I knew not what to say, I know well where 
he is. She reads and icrites better than he does. It snowed very fast. 
The wind blew very hard. Have you written f I have no ink. See 
those boys That book. Those apples are better than these. What 
sort of man is he ? He is an excellent scholar. Rises in Lewis county, 
and flows into the Hudson. 

2. If thou hast determined. Sewed very neatly. Overflowed. Un- 
less he has consented. Though he is high. If thou livest virtuously. 
Unless he means what he says. Unless it rain. Though he faU. If 



298 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I were hungry. Though virtue appears severe. Thou wast mv guide? 
He that had been dead. I shall ham been at school three years. I came 
where he had been, but he was not there. He will have earned. The 
Lord gave. I have remembered. They have continued. That ye may 
have life. Be that as it may. I intended to write. I thought I should 
lose it. He appeared to be a man of letters. Produces thirst. I ex- 
pected to see him. I shall be drowned : nobody will help me. They 
that iDill not work shall not eat. Have now agreed. We have infi- 
nitely swerved. Had now amount. Had also ceased. He had entered 
into a conspiracy. Sucb trifles ought not to be noticed. Profane Ian- 
guage should never be used. 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES COR- 
RECTED. 

Them that befriend you remember, and them that injure you for- 
get.— Rule 2. 

They that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. — Rule 1.* 

We adore the Divine Being, him who created and redeemed us. 

On these two causes depends all the happiness or misery which 
exists among men, or on these two causes depend all the happiness 
and misery which, exist among men. 

Though great have been his disobedience and folly, yet if he sin- 
cerely acknowledge his misconduct, he will be forgiven. 

By these attainments, the master is honored, and the scholars are 
encouraged. 

The property of James, (I mean his books and furniture,) was 
wholly destroyed. 

In this place, there was not only security, but an abundance of 
provisions. 

That writer has given an account of the manner in which Ckris- 
tianity was formerly propagated among the heathens. 

The sea appeared to be agitated more than usual. Or — unusuaUy 
agitated. 

Thou, Lord, who hast permitted afliiction to come upon us, wilt de- 
liver us from it in due time. 



♦ In correcting these promiscuous examples, the learner should mention each 
rule and note that is violated. 



SYNTAX. 299 

Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to come into tlie 
world, and icho lia^ been so long promised and desired. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understands 
the nature of the religion which he rejects. 

It was no exaggerated tale ; for she was really in that sad condi- 
tion in which her friend had represented her. 

TJiomae's disposition is better than his brother's ; and he appears 
to be a Jiappier man ; but some degree of trouble is all meiis portion. 

Virtue and mutual confidence are the soul of friendship. Where 
these are wanting disgust or hatred often follows little differences. 

An army presents a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

Time and chance happen to all men ; but every person does not 
consider who governs those powerful causes. 

Though remorse sometimes sleeps during prosperity, it will surely 
awake in adversity. 

Habits of temperance and self-denial must be acquired, that we 
may be able to resist pleasure, and to endure pain, when either of them 
interferes with our duty. 

The active mind of man seldom or never rests satisfied with its 
present condition, how prosperous soever it may he. 

It is an invariable law o/our present condition, that every pleas- 
ure which is pursued to excess, converts itself into poison. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek re- 
venge, are the duties of a Christian. 

How much are real virtue and merit exposed to suffer the hardships 
of a stormy life ! 

I cannot yield to so dishonorable conduct, either at the present mo- 
ment of diflBculty, or under any circumstances whatever. 

If a man professes a regard for the duties of religion, and neglects 
those of morality, that man's religion is vain. 

The polite, accomplished libertine is miserable amidst all his pleas- 
ures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than he is. 

Whence hus arisen so great a variety of opinions and tenets in 
religion ? 

Every church and sect of people has a set of opinions peculiar to 
itself. 

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, 
that it may be said, he attained monarchical power in Athens. 

Who is that whom I saw you introduce and present to the 
duke? 

Tliem that honor me I will honor. 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There waSy in the metropolis, much to amuse them, as well as many 
things to excite disgust. 

Its stature is less than a man's or that of a man ; but its strength 
and agility are much greater. 

There neither is, nor ought to be, such a thing as constructive 
treason. 

Hatred or revenge deserves censure, wherever it is found to exist. 

Too great a variety of studies dissipates and weakens the mind. 

Mayst thou, as well as T, be meek, patient, and forgiving. 

I icas lately at Gibraltar, and saw the commander-in-chief. 

These men were under high obligation to adhere to their friend in 
every situation of life. 

James was resolved not to indulge himself in so cruel an amuse- 
ment. 

His speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calum- 
nies that were ever uttered. 

The want of attention to this rule is the source of a very common 
error. 

Propriety of pronunciation consists in giving to every word that 
sound which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it. 

(■alumny and detraction are sparks, which, if you do not blow thejn, 
will go out themselves. 

Each of those two authors has his merit. 

I hope you will do me the favor, to accept a copy of "A view of the 
manufactories in the West Riding of Yorkshire." 

This treaty was made at the castle of earl Moreton the governor. 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words were faithless pro- 
fessions. 

He has little more of the great man than the title. 

The orators did not forget to enlarge on so popular a subject. 

That picture of the emperor is a very exact resemblance of him. 

All the power of ridicule, aided by the desertion of friends, and 
the diminution of his estate, icas not able to shake his principles. 

Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers have deserted. 

I have not consented, nor shall /consent to a proposal so unjust. 

Though the measure is mysterious, it is worthy of attention. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words ; health, peace, and competence. 

When a string of such sentences occurs, the effect is disagreeable. 

Neither flatter nor contemn the rich or the great. 



SYNTAX. 301 

He showed a spirit of forgiveness, and a magnanimity, that do 
honor to human nature. 

The set of new curtains did not correspond to the pair of old blinds. 

Every member of the body, every bone, joint, and muscle, lies ex- 
posed to many disorders ; and the greatest prudence, or precaution, or 
the deepest skill of the physician, is not sufficient to prevent them. 

Steady application, as well as genius and abilities, is necessary to 
l)roduce eminence. 

It is not the uttering or the hearing of certain words that consti- 
tutes the worship of the Almighty. It is the heart thal^ praises, or 
prays. If the heart accompanies not the words that are spoken, we 
offer the sacrifice of fools. 

We should be careful not to follow the example of many persons, 
who censure the opinions, manners; and customs of others, merely be- 
cause they are foreign to them. 

The furniture was all purchased at Wentworth's the joiner. 

They were solicitous to ingratiate themselves with those whom it 
"was dishonorable to favor. 

What can be the committee's reasons for having delayed this busi- 



This is the person to whom we are so much obliged, and whom we 
expected to see when the favor was conferred. 

There is not a creature that moves, nor a vegetable that grows, but 
what, when minutely examined, furnishes materials for pious ad- 
miration. 

They understand the practical part better than he does ; but he is 
much better acquainted %vith the theory than they are. 

His conduct was so provoking, that many will condemn him, and 
few will pity him. 

Temperance, more than medicines, is the proper means of curing 
many diseases. 

While we are unoccupied hy what is good, evil is continually at 
hand. 

Every thing that we here enjoy, changes, decays, and comes to an 
end. AM floats on the surface of that river, which, with »wift current, 
is running towards a boundless ocean. 



302 EifQLIBH GRAMMA a, 



CONYEESATIOlSr YIII. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

J, — Let us have an exercise in making and analyzing 
sentences. 

Mr. 8. — What! A synthetic and analytic exercise at 
once? Very well. "Came, saw, conquered.'' "Herbs and 
plants clothe." " Farmers cultivate." Are these expressions 
sentences ? 

J. — Not exactly ; for the sense is incomplete. 

Mr. S. — Does not came, saio, and conquered, express 
thoughts ? 

J. — Can a thought be expressed without a subject ? 
Who came, saw, and conquered ? 

Mr. S. — " I came, I saw, I conquered ? " The subject is 
an essential part of a sentence ; for we cannot think with- 
out a subject: every sentence must contain a subject and a 
thought, either expressed or clearly understood. 

/. — " What ! a synthetic and analytic exercise at once ! " 
Here is no subject nor thought expressed. Is this a sen- 
tence ? 

Mr. S. — It is a fragment of a sentence; for the subject 
and the thought are understood: the meaning is, "What! 
shall we have a synthetic and analytic exercise at once ? ** 

F. — Is " Not exactly " a sentence ? 

J. — This is also a fragment of a sentence, with the verb, 
the subject, and the predicate noun, understood : the mean- 
ing is, " These expressions are not exactly sentences." 

i?.T-Does not clothe express a thought about herhs and 
plants, and cultivate express a thought shout farmers f 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 303 

J, — Yes; but they express transitive thouglits, and 
require objects to complete the sense. Herbs and plants 
clothe what ? Farmers cultivate what ? 

G. — Herbs and plants clothe the ground. Farmers cul- 
tivate their land. 

/.—These expressions make complete sense, and there- 
fore they are sentences. Each of them contains but one 
finite verb: so they are simple sentences. Clothe expresses 
a thought that passes from its subjects hei^hs and plants to 
its object ground, which limits its extension, and is restricted 
in sense by the adjective the. Cultivate expresses a thought 
that passes from its subject /armer^ to its object land, which 
limits its extension, and is restricted in sense by the posses- 
sive their. 

Mr. 8. — Farmers cultivate their laud and sow their 
wheat. 

M. — This is a compound sentence ; it contains two finite 
verbs, cultivate and sow. 

Mr. S. — Good farmers cultivate their land thoroughly 
during the summer, and sow their winter wheat after 
harvest. 

E. — Cultivate expresses a thought that is modified by 
the adverb thoroughly and the phrase, "during the sum- 
mer," and passes from its subject farmers, which is restricted 
in sense by the adjective good, to its object la^id, which 
limits its extension, and is restricted in sense by their. Soiu 
expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase, " after 
harvest," and passes from its subject farmers to its object 
loheat, which limits its extension, and is restricted in sense 
by tlieir and winter. 

Mr. 8. — The wheat that lives through the winter grows 
luxuriantly in the spring, when the weather becomes warm 
and showery, and ripens before midsummer. 

J. — Lives expresses a thought that is modified by the 
phrase "through the winter," and confined to its subject 



304 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that, which represents wheat. Groivs expresses a thought 
that is modified by the adverb luxuriantly, the phrase, "in 
the spring," and the subordinate clause and connective, 
"when the weather becomes warm and showery," and is 
confined to its subject wheat, which is restricted in sense by 
the adjective the and the subordinate clause, "that lives 
through the winter." Becomes expresses a thought that is 
confined to its subject weather, ascribing to it the attributes 
expressed by the predicate adjectives icarm and shoivery. 
Ripens expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase, 
"before midsummer," and confined to its subject wheat; 
and it is connected by and to groivs. 

Mr. S. — James has analyzed this sentence very well. 
If you have listened attentively, you understand that it is 
a compound sentence containing four finite verbs, lives, 
groivs, becomes, and ripens, with three subjects and no ob- 
jects, and that it consists of one compound principal clause, 
"the wheat grows luxuriantly in the spring, and ripens be- 
fore midsummer," and two simple subordinate clauses, con- 
nected to it by that and tvhe7i. 

When it is ripe, they harvest it and put it into barns, or 
thrash it with machines in the fields where it grew. 

E. — Is expresses a thought that is confined to its sub- 
ject it, ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predi- 
cate adjective ripe. Harvest expresses a thought that passes 
from its subject they, which represents farmers, to its object 
it, which represents ivheat. Put expresses a thought modi- 
fied by the phrase, "into barns," and passing from its sub- 
ject they to its object it; and is connected by a7id to harvest. 
Thrash expresses a thought modified by the phrases, " with 
machines," and " in the fields," and passing from its subject 
they to its object it ; and is connected by or to pid. Greiv 
expresses a thought that is confined to its subject it. 

PF.— From Euth's analysis of this sentence, we see that 
it is a compound sentence containing five finite verbs, is, 



ANALYSIS OF SEKTENCES. 305 

harvest, piit, thrash^ and grew, with two subjects and one 
object, (the same subject and object being repeated,) and 
that it consists of one compound principal clause, " They 
harvest it and put it into barns, or thrash it with machines 
in the fields," and two simple subordinate ones connected to 
it by ivhen and 'where. 

Mr. S. — Now let ns put these sentences together and 
see what they will make. 

Good farmers cultivate their land thoroughly during the 
summer, and sow their winter wheat after harvest. The 
wheat that lives through the winter grows luxuriantly in 
the spring, when the weather becomes warm and showery, 
and ripens before midsummer. When it is ripe, they har- 
vest it and put it into barns, or thrash it with machines in 
the fields where it grew. 

J. — This is a paragraph, expressing an unbroken train 
of thought. 

Mr. S. — You are exactly right. ISTow we will break the 
thread of our discourse, and have a different train of thought 
on the same subject. Let ns see if we cannot have a new 
paragraph without a new subject. 

Vast quantities of wheat are raised in the temperate zones, 
where the soil and climate are congenial. What are all our 
precious metals worth, compared with this production of the 
soil? It is more valuable than gold. It is indispensable to 
the welfare and subsistence of mankind. It supplies en- 
lightened nations with the staff of life. Without it famine 
would ensue : millions of men, women, and children, would 
be starved to death ; and many of our cities, towns, and 
villages, depopulated. Have you ever thanked our boun- 
tiful Heavenly Father, who gives us each day our daily 
bread, for causing the earth to yield such an abundance of 
wheat ? 

P. — Oh ! I see ! You have a different train of thought in 
quite a different vein, more elevated and extensive than you 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

had in your other paragraph : you take a higher flight and 
wider range. 

H. — Why don't you put these sentences into your first 
paragraph ? "I came, I saw, I conquered." " Herhs and 
plants clothed the ground." 

Mr. 8. — Because the thoughts that they express have 
no connection with the train of thought in that para- 
graph. 

A sentence is such an expression of thought as makes 
complete sense. 

Without a finite verb we cannot express a thought so as 
to make complete sense. Therefore, every sentence must 
contain a finite verb either expressed or understood. 

In regard to their construction, sentences are divided 
into two classes ; simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that contains but one 
finite verb. 

A compound sentence is a sentence that contains more 
than one finite verb, either expressed or understood. 

A clause is a part of a compound sentence, containing 
one finite verb and its subject, or more than one. 

Clauses, as well as sentences, are either simple or com- 
pound. If a clause contains but one finite verb, it is simple ; 
if it contains more than one, it is compound. 

A phrase is an expression that consists of two or more 
parts of speech, but does not contain a finite verb and a 
subject. 

A paragraph is the expression of an unbroken train of 
thought. 

E. — Can a sentence that contains more subjects than 
one be simple ? and can a sentence that contains but one 
subject be compound ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly : we frequently have the same thought 
on different subjects, and different thoughts on the same 
subject, and express them accordingly ; making, whenever 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 307 

we please, a simple sentence with several subjects, and a 
compound sentence with but one subject. 

J. — Are there not three kinds of sentences ; simple, 
compound, and complex ? 

Mr. S. — Complex sentences are only species of compound 
sentences : all complex sentences are compound, but all 
compound sentences are not complex. A compound sen- 
tence may be plain or complex, close, compact, or loose.* 
But I will not trouble you with this subdivision. ' 

T, — I can very easily distinguish simple sentences from 
compound ones ; but complex sentences are too dark for 
me ; and the more our teachers explain them the darker 
they appear. 

Mr. S. — By long established usage, the word compound 
is appUed to sentences, as well as other things, that are not 
simple. The division of such sentences into two classes, 
compound and complex, is inconsistent and absurd, per- 
plexing to teachers, very difficult for learners, and entirely 
useless. It is a new-fangled innovation, at variance with 
scientific accuracy, plain common sense, analogy, and reason. 

In regard to their use, sentences and clauses are divided 
into four classes ; declarative, imperative, interrogative, and 
exclamatory. Clauses are also divided into two classes ; 
principal and subordinate. 

A declarative sentence or clause is one that expresses a 
declaration. 

An imperative sentence or clause is one that expresses a 
command or request, or permission. 

An interrogative sentence or clause is one that is used 
to ask a question. 

An exclamatory sentence or clause is one that is used to 
express emotion. 

A principal clause is an independent or leading clause. 

* See Prof. Mandeville's Elements of Reading and Oratory, page 60-70. 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A subordinate clause is a clause that depends upon an- 
other. 

iV. — How many kinds of phrases are there ? 

il/r. S. — With respect to the leading words, there are 
three kinds of phrases ; prepositional, infinitive, and parti- 
cipial : and three with respect to their construction in sen- 
tences; substantive, adjective, and adverbial. But you 
need not mention these in analyzing sentences. Subordi- 
nate clauses frequently modify the sense of nouns and verbs ; 
and yet in analyzing sentences we do not call them adjectives 
and adverbs, but clauses. As we sometimes meet with com- 
pound phrases like these, " He breathes the fragrance of the 
groves of Java, and sleeps upon the doivn of the cygnets of 
the Ganges,'^ phrases might be divided into simple and 
compound. But I will not trouble you with needless 
niceties. 

The grand essentials of every sentence are the subject 
and the thought; for without a thought there can be no 
sentence, and without a subject there can be no thought. 
So every sentence must have two principal parts; the sub- 
ject and the verb. Now and then a thought extends beyond 
its subject to an object. A sentence in which such a thought 
is expressed contains three principal parts ; the verb, its sub- 
ject, and its object. All the other parts of any sentence are 
but adjuncts or appendages of these principal parts. The 
appendages of verbs are adverbs, and phrases and clauses 
that modify their meaning ; the appendages of their subjects 
and their objects are adjectives, possessives, adjunctive 
phrases, and subordinate clauses. 

e/.— We have been taught that a sentence has but two 
principal parts ; the subject and the predicate. 

E. — Is not the predicate always a verb ? 

Mr. 8. — No : the predicate frequently consists of several 
parts of speech, and sometimes includes subordinate clauses. 
A verb is occasionally the whole predicate, but not very 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 309 

often. The predicate expresses all that we think or say of 
a subject. To think is to predicate mentally, and the think- 
ing or predicating is expressed by verbs only. This is their 
distinctive characteristic. It would therefore be more pro- 
per to call them predicatives than predicates. But it is not 
best to change their name for either of these appellations. 

R. — Does a participle express a thought or predication ? 

Mr. S. — A participle, as well as an infinitive, expresses 
predication indirectly; uniting a collateral or dependent 
thought to the principal or leading thought, without a con- 
nective; as, "I robbed other churches, tahing wages of 
them, to do you service." To express these thoughts with 
finite verbs requires connectives; thus, "I robbed other 
churches, and tooh wages of them, that I 7niglit do you ser- 
vice." 

E. — Our teachers have puzzled us so much with logical 
and grammatical subjects and predicates, entire principal 
subjects and subject-nominatives, entire principal predicates 
and predicate-verbs, that we can see no common sense or 
reason in analysis. 

Mr. S. — I will try to keep within the grammarian's prov- 
ince, and I will not attempt to display my logical attain- 
ments. Any analysis of sentences that confounds the parts 
of speech, and mixes up grammar with logic so as to puzzle 
and confuse the learner, is a very poor grammatical exercise. 

We will now reduce our theory to practice. Analyze the 
sentences I give you, according to the principles that I have 
explained. 

J. — It is easier to form theories than to reduce them to 
practice. Will you exemplify your theory by analyzing sen- 
tences yourself ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly. I will begin with easy sentences, 
and advance gradually to harder ones. When I have ana- 
lyzed a sentence, if you don't understand me, I will answer 
any questions that you ask. 



3iO ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Birds sing. Flowers bloom. 

These are simple declarative sentences : each of them contains but 
one finite verb and expresses a declaration. 

Birds sing, and flowers bloom. 

This is a compound declarative sentence : it contains two finite 
verbs and expresses a declaration. It consists of two principal clauses 
connected by and. 

Birds is the subject of the finite verb sing, a^nd flowers is the sub- 
ject of the finite verb bloom. 

Koses bud, blow, wither, fade, and die. 

This is a compound declarative sentence : it contains five finite 
verbs and expresses a declaration. 

Boses is the subject of the finite verbs, bud, blow, wither, fade, and 
die ; which are connected by and. 

Do the books lie on the desk where I left tbem ? 

This is a compound interrogative sentence : it contains two finite 
verbs and is used to ask a question. It consists of the principal clause, 
" do the books lie on the desk ? " and a subordinate clause connected 
to it by where. 

Books is the subject of the finite verb do lie, which is modified in 
meaning by the phrase, " on the desk," and by the subordinate clause, 
*' where I left them." I is the subject of the finite verb left, and the 
object is them, which represents books restricted in sense by the. 

E. — How can we distinguish principal clauses from sub- 
ordinate ones ? 

Mr. 8. — By observing what connectiyes are used. Prin- 
cipal clauses are generally connected by and, or, nor, hut, 
neither, yet, or nevertheless; and subordinate clauses, by 
other connectives. 



How many bright eyes grow dim 



This is a simple exclamatory sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb and expresses emotion. 

The subject of the finite verb grow is eyes, which is emphasized 



ANALYSISOF SENTENCES. 311 

by many modified by JioiCy and is qualified by the adjectives bright and 
dim. 

Oast thy garment about thee, and follow me. 

This is a compound imperative sentence: it contains two finite 
verbs, and expresses a command. It consists of two principal clauses 
connected by and. 

The subject of the finite verbs cast and follow is thou imderstood; 
garment is the object of ca*^, and me is the object of follow. Cast ia 
modified in meaning by the phrase, " about thee," and garment is re- 
stricted in sense by the possessive thy. 

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 

This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

God, is the subject of the finite verb created, which is modified by 
the phrase, " in the beginning," and heaven and earth, limited by the, 
are the objects. 

The evening and the morning were the first day. 

This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

Evening and morning, limited by the, are the subjects of the finite 
verb were ; and day is in predication with evening and moi ning, and 
is restricted in sense by the adjectives the a,nd first. 

The apostle Paul was a brave and virtuous man. 

Tliis is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

Apostle, limited by the, is the subject of was ; Paul is in apposi- 
tion with apostle ; and man is in predication with it, and is limited by 
a and qualified by hrave and virtuous. 

Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. 

This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

Sincerity and truth are the subjects of form, and the object is 
basis, restricted in sense by the adjective the and the phrase, *'of 
every virtue." 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

One act of indiscretion, one moment of weakness, may 
mar the beauty of a whole life of virtue. 

This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

Act and moment, restricted in sense by the adjective one and the 
phrases, "of indiscretion" and "of weakness," are the subjects of 
7nay mar, and beauty, restricted by the and the phrase, " of a whole 
life of virtue," is the object. 

Awake, arise, or be for ever fallen. 

This is a compound imperative sentence : it contains three finite 
verbs, and expresses a command or request. 

Ye or you understood is the subject of these verbs, and be fallen 
is modified by for ever. 

Is it Pithius, just arrived ? 

This is a simple interrogative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and is used to ask a question. 

It is the subject of the finite verb is, and Pithius is in predication 
with it. The participle arrived is modified in meaning by the adverb 
just, and relates to Pithius as its subject. 

He has come to die and to redeem his friend. 

' This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one finite 
verb, and expresses a declaration. 

He is the subject of the finite verb has come; and friend is the 
object of to redeem, and is restricted in sense by the possessive Ms. 
The infinitives to die and to redeem relate to he as their subject, and 
depend on has come. 

We can very easily make such sentences as these com- 
pound by making the infinitives and participles finite verbs ; 
thus, "Is it Pithius, that has just arrived?" ^'He has 
come that he may die and redeem his friend." We can 
sometimes make simple sentences compound by using sub- 
ordinate clauses instead of adjectives. 

Will you make these sentences compound ? 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 313 

He has a sheep-lcilling dog. Man is a thinking being. 
A quadruped is 2^ four-footed animal. 

J". — He has a dog tliat hills slieep. Man is a being that 
ihinJcs. A quadruped is an animal that has four feet. 

Will some of you analyze a few sentences ? 

This is the dog that killed the cat that caught the rat 
that eat the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

J. — This is a compound declarative sentence : it contains six finite 
verbs, and expresses a declaration. It consists of the principal clause, 
" This is the dog," and five subordinate ones connected by that. 

This is the subject of is, and dog is in predication with this, and ia 
restricted in sense by the and the subordinate clause, " that killed the 
cat" The subject of killed is that, which represents dog, and the 
object is cat, which is restricted in sense by the and the subordinate 
clause, " that caught the rat." The subject of caught is that, which 
represents cat, and the object is rat, which is restricted in sense by the 
and the subordinate clause, "that eat the malt." The subject of eat 
is that^ which represents rat, and the object is m.alt,vA\\ch. is restricted 
in sense by the and the subordinate clause, " that lay in the house." 
That represents malt, and is the subject of lay, which is modified in 
meaning by the phrase " in the house." The subject of huilt is Jack^ 
and the object is that, which represents house, 

Charles was kind and generous to his friends. 

R. — This is a simple declarative sentence : it contains but one 
finite verb, and expresses a declaration. 

Charles is the subject of the finite verb teas, and is qualified by the 
predicate adjectives kind and generous, which are restricted in sense 
by the phrase, " to his friends." 

Am I your enemy, because I tell you the truth ? 

E. — This is a compound interrogative sentence : it contains two 
finite verbs, and is used to ask a question. It consists of the principal 
clause, "Ami your enemy ? " and a subordinate one connected by 
because. 

I is the subject of the finite verb am ; enemy is in predication 
with/, and is restricted in sense by the possessive your; /is the 
subject of the finite verb tell, and you is the indirect object, and truths 
restricted by the, is the direct object. 
14 



314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Are you the boys that stole my peaches ? 

P. — You is the subject of tlie finite verb are ; hoi/s is in predica- 
tion with you, and is restricted in sense by tJie and the subordinate 
clause, "that stole my peaches ;" the subject of the finite verb stole 
is tMt, which represents boys, and the object is peaches, restricted in 
sense by my. 

This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of a prin- 
cipal clause and a subordinate one connected by that. 

My dear young friends, be honest, faithful, kind and 
true. 

M. — This is a simple imperative sentence : it contains but one 
finite verb and expresses a request. 

The subject of the finite verb he is you, understood, which is quali- 
fied by the predicate adjectives, honest, faithful, kind, and true. 

W. — Is not friends the subject of be ? 

M. — No : it is in the nominative case independent. 

Did you shoot these pigeons, or catch them in a net ? 

ff. — This is a compound interrogative sentence : it contains two 
finite verbs, and is used to ask a question. It consists of two principal 
clauses, connected by or. 

The subject of the finite verb did shoot is you, and the object is 
pigeons restricted in sense by these. You is the subject of the finite 
verb [did] catch, which is modified by the phrase, " in a net," and the 
object is them, which represents pigeons. 

To copy instinct then was reason's part. 

E. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

" To copy instinct," is the subject of was, which is modified by 
then ; and part, restricted in sense by reason's, is in predication with 
*' to copy instinct." 

Such purpose dread could Malcolm spy 
In EUen's quivering lip and eye. 

G. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Malcolm is the subject of could spy, which is modified by the 



ANALYSIS OF SLNTEKCES. ^15 

phrase, " In Ellen's quivering lip and eye," and the object is purpose, 
which is restricted in sense by suc/i, and qualified by dread. 

His flaxen hair, of sunny hue, 
Curled closely round his bonnet blue. 

D. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Hair, restricted in sense by the possessive his, and qualified by the 
adjective flaxen and the phrase, "of sunny hue," is the subject of 
curled, which is modified by the adverb closely and the phrase, " round 
his bonnet blue." > 

Angus, the heir of Duncan's line. 
Sprang forth and seized the fatal sign. 

This is a compound declarative sentence. 

Angus is the subject of sprang, which is modified by the adverb 
forth; and heir is in apposition with Angus, and is restricted in sense 
by the and the phrase, " of Duncan's line : " Angus is also the subject 
of seized, and the object is sign, which is restricted by the and fatal. 

On his bold visage middle age 
Had slightly pressed its signet sage. 
Yet had not quenched the open truth 
And fiery vehemence of youth. 

J\r. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
principal clauses connected by yet. 

Age, qualified by the adjective middle, is the subject of had pressed, 
which is modified by the adverb slightly and the phrase, " on his bold 
visage," and the object is signet, which is restricted in sense by the 
possessive its and qualified by the adjective sage : age is also the sub- 
ject of had quenched, which is modified by not, and the objects are 
truth and vehemence, which are restricted in sense by the and the 
phrase, " of youth," and qualified by the adjectives open smd fiery. 

Even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one 

of these. 

W. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Solomon, emphasized by the adjective even and qualified by the 
phrase, " in all his glory," is the subject of was arrayed, which is 
modified by the adverb not and the phrase, " like one of these." 



316 EITGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. 

T. — This is a compound declarative sentence consisting of two 
principal clauses. 

It, in the first clause, is the subject of is sown ; and body, restricted 
in sense by the adjectives a and natural, is in predication with it. In 
the next clause, it is the subject of is raised ; and body, restricted in 
sense by the adjectives a and spiritual, is in predication with it. 

He feeds yon almshouse neat, but void of state. 
Where age and want sit smiling at the gate. 

F. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a prin- 
cipal clause and a subordinate one connected by where. 

The subject of feeds is he, and the object is almshouse, restricted 
in sense by yon and qualified by neat, also by void, which is modified 
by the phrase, "of state." Age and want are the subjects of sit, 
which is modified by the phrase, " at the gate." The participle smiling 
relates to age and want as its subjects. 

Oh stranger ! in such hour of fear, 
What evil hap has brought thee here ? 

R. — This is a simple interrogative sentence. 

Stranger has no dependence on any other word. Hap, qualified 
by the adjectives what and ecil, is the svibject of has brought, which is 
modified- by the adverb here and the phrase, " in such hour of fear," 
and thee is the object. 

An evil hap, how can it be. 
That bids me look again on thee ? 

B. — This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of a 
principal clause and a subordinate one connected by that. 

It is the subject of can be, which is modified by 7iow ; and hap, 
restricted in sense by an and evil, is in predication with U. That is the 
subject of bids, and me is the object. The infinitive look, modified by 
the adverb again and the phrase, " on thee," relates to me as its sub- 
ject and depends on bids. 

Sweet Ellen, dear my life must be, 
Since it is worthy care from thee. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 317 

P. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a prin- 
cipal clause and a subordinate one connected by dnce. 

Ellen depends on no other word, and is qualified by the adjective 
sweet. The subject of must he is life, which is restricted in sense by 
the possessive 7ny and qualified by the predicate adjective dear. The 
subject of is is it, which represents life, and is qualified by the predi- 
cate adjective worthy, which is restricted in sense by the phrase, " [of] 
care from thee." 

The spot an angel deigned to grace 

Is blessed, though robbers haunt the place. 

M. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of the 
principal clause, " the spot is blessed," and two subordinate ones con- 
nected to it by which, understood, and though. 

Spot, restricted in sense by the and the subordinate clause, " an 
angel deigned to grace," is the subject of is blessed. The subject of 
deigned is angel, restricted by a)i. The infinitive to grace relates to 
angel as its subject, and depends on deigned. The subject of haunt is 
robbers, and the object is jilace, restricted in sense by the. 

I am he that liveth, and was dead ; and, behold, I am 
alive for evermore. 

H. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
compound clauses connected by and. 

I is the subject of am; and he, restricted in sense by the sub- 
ordinate clause, " that liveth, and was dead," is in predication with /. 
That is the subject of liveth, and also of was, and is qualified by the 
predicate adjective dead. The subject of behold is thou, understood. 
/ is the subject of am. and is qualified by the predicate adjective alive, 
which is modified by for evermore. 

A hero's bride ! this desert bower, 
It ill befits thy gentle breeding. 

O. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Bride is restricted in sense by hero's, (which is restricted by a) 
and is in the nominative case independent by exclamation ; and bower, 
restricted by this and qualified by desert, is in the nominative case in- 
dependent by pleonasm. It is the subject of befits, which is modified 
by ill, and the object is breeding, restricted in sense by thy, and quali- 
fied by gentle. 



318 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

/. — Why don'fc you say nouns and pronouns are modified, 
instead of restricted in sense, or limited, or qualified ? 

Mr. S, — Because, in analyzing sentences, many teachers 
and learners have acquired the habit of repeating the word 
modify like parrots, without thinking of its meaning ; and 
the constant repetition of the same word makes their exer- 
cises tedious and monotonous. I have endeavored to pre- 
sent you a greater variety of expression, and to use words 
that you understand, so as to make you think what you are 
saying when you analyze a sentence. You may use other 
words of similar meaning, if you understand them better. 

/. — Will it pay to spend our time in studying analysis ? 
Does it help us speak and write correctly ? Can we under- 
stand a sentence any better by analyzing it than we can by 
parsing it ? 

Mr, S. — I would not advise you to neglect orthography, 
etymology, syntax, or prosody, to learn analysis ; for I must 
acknowledge that it is more curious than useful. Its prin- 
cipal utility consists in showing us the nature and use of 
phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs, and in distin- 
guishing the different kinds of sentences and clauses. Pars- 
ing was formerly considered a sufiBcient analysis of sen- 
tences, and it is so considered yet by many very good 
grammarians. 

We will now attend exclusively to the more important 
part of analysis, which is not learned by ordinary parsing. 
As I read or repeat a few sentences and paragraphs, tell me 
the number and kind of clauses in each sentence, and the 
number and kind of sentences in each paragraph. 

They who are most in earnest to lay hold on the crown 
of eternal life need not be surprised or disheartened, because 
every step of advance towards the heavenly prize must cost 
effort and encounter opposition. 

B. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
compound clauses connected by 'becavM, 



ANALYSIS OF SEKTEKCES. 319 

Pain is the price of pleasure, sacrifice is the condition 
of success, and life eternal begins with the agony of death. 

JS'.— This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of three 
simple clauses connected by and. 

The bow of promise spans the cloud which bears the 
thunder in its bosom. 

P. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a prin- 
cipal clause and a subordinate one connected by which. \ 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his 
spots ? 

M. — This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of two 
eimple clauses connected by or. 

H. — This sentence contains but one finite verb. How 
then can it be compound ? 

Mr. S. — It has a finite verb expressed in the first clause, 
and a finite verb understood in the last clause ; thus, " Can 
the leopard change his spots?" Any sentence that con- 
tains two or more finite verbs, either expressed or under- 
stood, is compound. 

Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar; 
Wait the great teacher, Death ; and God adore. 

W. — This is a compound imperative sentence, consisting of four 
simple clauses connected by and. 

The reddening clouds of the evening foretoken the fair 
weather of the morning. The fiery bolt that crashes 
through the sultry air of an autumn night is the harbinger 
of a clearer sky and a colder day. The mists that hide the 
sunrise among mountains give promise of a cloudless noon. 
The intense cold of the severest winter's day is the last 
effort of the cruel frost to lock tlie earth in fetters of eternal 
ice. To-morrow the crisping snow will soften in the breath 



320 EITGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of a more genial air, aud the hazy skies will give signs of 
coming rain. In tropic climes the tornado that lashes the 
sea into madness, and the earthquake which drives its 
ploughshare through the solid globe, are announced by a 
breathless and awful calm. 

J. — This paragraph contains six declarative sentences. The first 
is a simple sentence.* The second and the third are compound sen- 
tences, each of them consisting of a principal clause and a subordinate 
one connected by that. The fourth is a simple sentence. The fifth is 
a compound sentence, consisting of two simple clauses connected by 
and. The sixth is a compound sentence, consisting of the principal 
clause, ** In tropic climes the tornado and the earthquake are an- 
nounced by a breathless and awful calm," and two subordinate ones 
connected to it by that and which. 

R. — Is not this long enough for two paragraphs ? 

Mr. S. — It expresses one continuous and unbroken train 
of thought, and therefore it should not be divided. But 
when a train of thought is continued to a very great and 
inconvenient length, as is sometimes done by close thinkers, 
it may be expressed in different paragraphs to give the 
manuscript or printed page a better appearance. 

The proper division of a composition into paragraphs 
requires considerable skill and judgment, correctness of 
taste, experience in writing, close attention to what is writ- 
ten, and careful observation of paragraphs in books. 

For brass I will bring gold, and for iron I will bring 
silver, and for wood brass, and for stones iron : I will also 
make thy officers peace, and thine exactors righteousness. 

H. — This is a fragmentary compound declarative sentence, con- 
sisting of two compound clauses separated by a colon ; the first of 
which consists of two entire simple clauses, and two fragments of 



* For the sake of brevity I number the sentences to distin^ish them. But in 
teaching orally you should repeat them and show how all the clauses are connected, 
or make your pupils do so. 



ANALYSIS OF SEITTENCES. 621 

clauses connected by and, with tlie verb wUl bring and its subject / 
understood ; and the second consists of one entire simple clause, and 
the fragment of one connected by and, with the verb loill make and its 
Bubj ect / understood. 

Violence shall no more be heard in thy land, wasting 
nor destruction within thy borders; but thou shalt call thy 
walls Salvation, and thy gates Praise. 

W. — This is a fragmentary compound declarative seijitence, con- 
sisting of two compound clauses connected by but ; the first of which 
consists of one entire simple clause, and the fragment of one, with the 
verb shall be heard understood ; and the second consists of one entire 
simple clause, and the fragment of one connected by and, with the 
verb shalt call and its subject thou understood. 

The sun shall be no more thy light by day ; neither for 
brightness shall the moon give light unto thee: but the 
Lord shall be unto thee an everlasting light, and thy God 
thy glory. 

JR. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
compound clauses connected by but ; the first of which consists of 
two simple clauses connected by neither ; and the second consists of 
one entire simple clause and the fragment of one connected by and, 
with the verb shall be, understood. 

Thy sun shall no more go down ; neither shall thy moon 
withdraw itself: for the Lord shall be thine everlasting 
light, and the days of thy mourning shall be ended. 

E. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a com-, 
pound principal clause and a compound subordinate one connected by 
for. The principal clause consists of two simple clauses connected 
by neither, and the subordinate clause consists of two simple clauses 
connected by and. 

Ye nymphs of Solyma ! begin the song : 

To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong. 

B — This is a compound sentence consisting of two simple clauses ; 
the first of which is imperative, and the second is declarative. 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The mossy fountains, and the sylvan shades. 
The dreams of Pindus, and the Aonians maids. 
Delight no more. 

i\r. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

O thou my voice inspire, 
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire ! 

G. — This is a compound imperative sentence, consisting of a sim- 
ple principal clause and a simple subordinate one connected by who. 

As, by the light of opening day 

The stars are all concealed. 
So earthly pleasures fade away 

When Jesus is revealed. 

J. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of the 
principal clause, " earthly pleasures fade away," and two subordinate 
clauses connected to it by when, and by the correlative connectives as 
and so. 

All crimes shall cease, and ancient fraud shall fail ; 
Returning Justice lift aloft her scale ; 
Peace o'er the world her olive wand extend, 
And white-robed Innocence from heaven descend. 

M. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of five 
simple clauses connected by and. 

The Saviour comes I by ancient bards foretold : 
Hear him, ye deaf, and all ye blind, behold ! 

J. — This is a compound sentence, consisting of a simple declara- 
tive clause and a compound imperative clause* 

He from thick films shall purge the visual ray, 
And on the sightless eye-ball pour the day : 
'Tis he the obstructed paths of sound shall clear. 
And bid new music charm the unfolding ear ; 
The dumb shall sing, the lame his crutch forego. 
And leap exulting like the bounding roe. 

IT*.— This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of tiiree 
compound clauses separated by colons. 



ANALYSIS or SENTENCES, 323 

No sigh, no murmur, tlie wide world shall hear, 
From every face he wipes oflp every tear. 

O. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
simple clauses. 

Alas ! how often has experience shown, that where roses 
were supposed to bloom nothing but briers and thorns grew ! 

D. — This is a compound exclamatory sentence, consisting of a 
simple principal clause and a compound subordinate one connected by 
that. The subordinate clause consists of two simi^le clauses connected 
by where. 

No more shall nation against nation rise, 
Nor ardent warriors meet with hateful eyes, 
Nor fields with gleaming steel be covered o'er. 
The brazen trumpets kindle rage no more ; 
But useless lances into scythes shall bend, 
And the broad falchion in a ploughshare end. 

W. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
compound clauses connected by hut ; the first of which consist of four 
simple clauses connected by nor, and the second consists of two con- 
nected \ij and. 

Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 
Shall finish what his short-lived sire begun ; 
T^eir vines a shadow to their race shall yield. 
And the same hand that sowed shall reap the field. 

^.— This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of four 
simple principal clauses and two simple subordmate ones. 

In these deep solitudes and awful cells, 
Where heavenly-pensive contemplation dwells. 
And ever-musing Melancholy reigns ; 
What means this tumult in a vestal's veins ? 
Why rove my thoughts beyond this last retreat ? 
Why feels my heart its long-forgotten heat ? 

JS. — This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of three 
simple principal clauses, and a compound subordinate one connected 
to them by wh&re and consisting of two simple clauses connected by 
and. 



324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Oh may we never love as tliese have loved ! 

H. — This is a compound exclamatory sentence, consisting of a 
simple principal clause and a simple subordinate one connected by as. 

Last noon beheld them full of lusty life ; 
Last eve, in beauty's circle, proudly gay : 
The midnight brought the signal sound of strife; 
The morn, the marshaling in arms ; the day. 
Battle's magnificently stern array ! 

E. — This is a fragmentary compound sentence, consisting of two 
compound clauses separated by a colon ; the first of which consists of 
an entire simple clause and the fragment of one, with the verb heJield 
and its object them understood ; and the second consists of one entire 
simple clause and two fragments of clauses, with the verb brought 
understood. 

No radiant pearl which crested fortune wears. 
No gem that twinkling hangs from beauty's ears. 
Nor the bright stars which night's blue arch adorn. 
Nor rising suns that gild the vernal morn. 
Shine with such luster as the tear that breaks 
For others' woe, down virtue's manly cheeks. 

P. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of the 
principal clause, " no radiant pearl, no gem, nor the bright stars, nor 
rising suns, shine with such luster," and four simple subordinate ones 
connected to it by icMch and tJiat, and a compound subordinate clause 
connected by as, and consisting of an entire simple clause and the frag- 
ment of one connected by that, with shines understood after tear. 

The man who hails you Tom or Jack, 
And proves by thumps upon your back. 

How he esteems your merit, 
Is such a friend that one had need 
Be very much his friend indeed. 

To pardon or to bear it. 

R. — This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of the 
principal clause, " the man is such a friend," and two subordinate ones 
connected to it by icho and that ; the first of which is compound, con- 



ANALYSIS OF SEKTEKCES. 325 

sisting' of a compound clause and a simple one connected by how ; and 

the secoud is a simple clause.* 

We are all encompassed with hazards and uncertainties. 
We must struggle and endure even to live. Life itself is a 
continued struggle against both real and imaginary foes. 
The powers of light and darkness are ever set iii array 
against each other. The most quiet home on earth must be 
shaken every day by the shock of contending forces. We 
must all take part in this ceaseless struggle. 

When the ear heard me, then it blessed me ; and when 
the eye saw me, it gave witness to me : because I delivered 
the poor that cried, and the fatherless, and him that had 
none to help him. The blessing of him that was ready to 
perish came upon me : and I caused the widow's heart to 
sing for joy. I put on righteousness, and it clothed me : 
my judgment was as a robe and a diadem. I was eyes to 
the blind, and feet was I to the lame. I was a father to the 
poor : and the cause which I knew not I searched out. 

Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose 
the bands of Orion ? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in 
his season ? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons ? 
Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven ? canst thou set 
the dominion thereof in the earth ? Canst thou lift up thy 
voice to the clouds, that abundance of waters may cover 
thee ? Canst thou send lightnings, that they may go, and 
say unto thee. Here we are ? 

Ruth said, Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return 
from following after thee : for whither thou goest, I will go; 
and where thou lodgest, I will lodge : thy people shall be 
my people : and thy God, my God : where thou diest, will I 



* Let your pupils analyze the following sentences and paragraphs according to 
the models of analysis herein presented. These and the preceding sentences may 
be occasionally used in parsing. 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

die, and there will I be buried : the Lord do so to me, and 
more also, if aught but death part thee and me. 

Daughter of Faitli, awake, arise, illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb I 
Melt and dispel, ye specter doubts, that roll 
Cimmerian darkness on the parting soul ! 
Fly, like the moon-eyed herald of Dismay, 
Chased on her night-steed by the star of day I 
The strife is o'er — the pangs of Nature close, 
And life's last rapture triumphs o'er her woes. 
Hark ! as the spirit eyes, with eagle gaze, 
The noon of Heaven undazzled by the blaze, 
On Heavenly winds that waft her to the sky, 
Float the sweet tones of star-bom melody ; 
Wild as that hallowed anthem sent to hail 
Bethlehem's shepherds in the lonely vale. 
When Jordan hushed his waves, and midnight still 
Watched on the holy towers of Zion's hill. 

How sweet the hour of closing day, 

When all is peaceful and serene. 
And when the sun, with cloudless ray, 

Sheds mellow luster o'er the scene ! 

Sucb is the Christian's parting hour ; 

So peacefully he sinks to rest ; 
When faith, endued from heaven with power. 

Sustains and cheers his languid breast. 

Mark but that radiance of his eye. 

That smile upon his wasted cheek ; 
They tell us of his glory nigh, 

In language that no tongue can speak. 

A beam from heaven is sent to cheer 

The pilgrim on his gloomy road ; 
And angels are attending near, 

To bear him to their bright abode. 

Who would not wish to die like those 
Whom God's own Spirit deigns to bless? 

To sink into that soft repose. 
Then wake to perfect happiness ? 



CONVEESATION IX. 



PROSODY. 

P. — Do we require any thing more to make us good 
grammarians, after learning to construct and analyze our 
sentences correctly ? 

Mr. 8. — Certainly; for all our sentences may lie con- 
structed with perfect propriety, and yet, through bad pro- 
nunciation, fail to express our thoughts effectively: the 
most beautiful sentences may be so miserably mangled in 
reading or speaking as to weary and disgust the liearer. 

E. — How can we ever learn the right pronunciation of 
every word and sentence ? 

Mr. S. — The right pronunciation of all the words we 
use, (by lexicographers called orthoepy,) you can learn by 
studying your dictionary. But the true pronunciation or 
utterance of sentences, commonly called delivery or elocu- 
tion, must be learned from Nature's Book by observation 
and experience. This requires attention to emphases, 
pauses, tones, inflections, and gestures. 

/. — Does it not require attention to accent and quantity ? 

Mr. S. — Accent and quantity belong to orthoepy : they 
modify the pronunciation of single words. 

Accent is a particular stress or force of voice given to a 
certain syllable of a word to distinguish it from the rest. 

Quantity is the measure of a syllable, determining the 
time in which it is pronounced. 



328 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Emphasis is a particular stress or force of voice, given to 
a certain part of a sentence to distiDguish it from the rest. 

Pauses are temporary cessations of the voice in reading 
or speaking. 

Tones are certain modulations of the voice denoting the 
feelings of the speaker or reader. 

Inflections are certain modulations of the voice in pass- 
ing from one note into another. 

The rising inflection is the rising of the voice to a 
higher note. 

The falling inflection is the falling of the voice to a 
lower note. 

The latter is sometimes called cadence. Some elocution- 
ists call the rising inflection the upward slide ; and the 
falling, the downward slide. 

Gestures are movements of the body or limbs expressive 
of sentiment or passion, making elocution more impressive. 

R. — Let us have a practical exercise in elocution. 

Mr. S. — Very well. Each of you may read the sen- 
tences that I select. 

When at last I was forced from my Sheelah to part, 
Slie said, (while the sorrow was big at her heart,) 
" Oh ! remember your Sheelah when far, far away ; 
And be kind, my dear Pat, to our poor dog Tray." 
Poor dog ! he was faithful and kind, to be sure ; 
And he constantly loved me, although I was poor : 
When the sour-looking folks sent me heartless away, 
I had always a friend in my poor dog Tray. 

Thus, with forgiving tears, and reconciled, 
The king of Judah mourned his rebel child : 
Musing on days, when yet the guiltless boy 
Smiled on his sire, and filled his heart with joy 1 
" My Absalom ! " (the voice of nature cried !) 
" Oh ! that for thee thy father could have died I 
For bloody was the deed and rashly done. 
That slew my Absalom ! — my son ! — my son 1 " 



ELOCUTIOJT. 329 

" And weep not thus," he cried, " young EUenore, 

My bosom bleeds, but soon shall bleed no more ! 

Short shall this half -extinguished spirit burn, 

And soon these limbs to kindred dust return ! 

But not, my child, with life's precarious fire, 

The immortal ties of Nature shall expire. 

These shall resist the triumph of decay 

When time is o'er, and worlds have passed away 1 

Cold in the dust this perished heart may lie. 

But that which warmed it once shall never die 1 » 

That spark unburied in its mortal frame, 

With living light, eternal, and the same. 

Shall beam on Joy's interminable years, 

Unveiled by darkness — unassuaged by tears I'* 

Mr. S. — I hope you will not be offended, if I criticise 
your reading, and suggest improvements. It is generally 
too stiff and artificial. Some of you that have most excel- 
lent voices lay them aside in reading, and assume some 
favorite orator's or reader's voice, which nature never in- 
tended you to use. Improve your voices all you can, but 
guard against affectation. Whether you read, or speak in 
public, follow nature: use the same accents, emphases, 
pauses, tones, inflections, and gestures, that you do in 
animated conversation. Read and speak as you would talk 
to confidential friends on the same subject, when you are in 
earnest and perfectly free from all embarrassment. 

To be distinctly heard and clearly understood by all your 
audience, is the first requisite. Occasionally cast your eye 
on the most distant person in the assembly, and regulate 
your voice as if you were addressing him: we naturally 
speak loudly enough to be heard by the person whom we 
address. But distinct and accurate articulation is more 
essential than mere loudness of voice, to make you clearly 
and easily understood by a large assembly. Pronounce all 
your words distinctly and deliberately, but never trail nor 
drawl tbem ; and see that all your emphases, pauses, tones. 



33^(X ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

inflections, and gestures, be perfectly natural, easy, and 
graceful. 

G. — How can we ever learn to do all this ? 

Mr, 8. — By attending to tlie manner in which nature 
teaches us to speak, when we are engaged in real and ear- 
nest discourse with others. In animated conversation, we 
seldom fail to use the proper emphases, pauses, tones, inflec- 
tions, and gestures. Make this your model for reading and 
public speaking. Study what you are to read till you un- 
derstand it thoroughly, and enter into the spirit of the 
author's sentiments ; and then deliver them as you would 
speak them, if they were your own. 

Even children learn the proper use of emphases, pauses, 
tones, inflections, and gestures, in familiar conversation, 
long before they learn to read; and the principal thing that 
they require to become good readers, is, to apply their ordi- 
nary mode of speaking to their reading, and to read as they 
talk. Of course, they should be taught to correct bad habits 
and pronounce their words correctly. This we all should 
do in common conversation, as well as in reading and public 
speaking. We should study our dictionary, and learn to 
pronounce every word we speak according to the best 
authority, till we acquire a habit of correct pronunciation. 

H, — Do you hear those two boys in the school-yard? 
They are talking very earnestly. Here is an excellent 
chance to study Nature's elocution. Let us listen to their 
conversation. Let us write it on our slates, and read it. 
Perhaps we may succeed as well as that distinguished British 
orator who went to the baker's for his eloquence, and came 
to parliament for his bread. 

Mr. S, — If you read the dialogue that you have written 
half as well as these two boys have spoken it, I shall call 
you very good readers. Their conversation was entirely free 
from affectation ; and their elocution was correct and natu- 
ral, easy, graceful, and expressive. Though they were five 



ELOCUTION^. 331 

or six rods distant, every word could be distinctly heard and 
clearly understood. Their voices filled the school-yard, like 
the music of the birds, with native melody. How beauti- 
fully they used the rising, and the falling, and the circum- 
flex inflection ! better than I ever heard them used in read- 
ing. How graceful were their emphases and pauses ! How 
expressive were their tones and gestures ! With what sweet 
and thrilling music did they modulate their voices, as if 
Nature herself were addressing us through them, and urging 
us to use the voices she has given us, and to lay aside for- 
ever our disgusting affectation and pomposity, our dull mo- 
notony and stiff formahty ! 

Now read this dialogue as you would speak it, if you 
were talking in earnest, as they were just now. Do not 
imitate their voices, but give your own free play and full 
scope, as you do in animated conversation. Read as you 
talk in earnest discourse with intimate friends; and you 
will soon acquire a graceful ease in reading and a beautiful 
flexibility of voice, without which you can never be good 
readers or eloquent speakers. You might as well attempt 
to dance on stilts, as to read effectively and gracefully with 
an assumed voice, or in an artificial, stiff, affected manner.* 

R. — Will you give us a few illustrations of emphasis ? 

Mr. S. — Emphasis materially affects the meaning of a 
sentence. This short question, "Will you ride to Rome 
with me to-day ? " is capable of several different answers, if 
we emphasize it differently. Now, as I repeat this question, 
answer it according to the emphasis. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 

E. — No : but Mary will. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 



* To prevent annatnral reading, drill your pupil?, now and then, in writing 
real conversationB that occur among the children, and in reading them as earnestly 
and tmaffectedly as they are spoken hy the children. 



333 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

B,—'No : I intend to tvalk. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 

.E'.— No : I shall ride to Utica. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 

K — 'No : I will ride with William. 

Will you ride to Eome with me to-day 9 

E. — No : but I will to-morrow. 

Will you ride to Eome with me to-day ? 

E. — To be sure I loill, if I can get a chance. 

P.— Explain the nature and use of pauses and tones. 

Mr. S. — The principal use of pauses is, to mark the divi- 
sions of the sense, and give the hearer time to reflect on 
what is said and fix it in his memory ; and also to permit 
the speaker to draw his breath and rest the organs of speech, 
so that he can proceed with his discourse without improper 
interruptions. Pauses in reading and in public speaking, 
should be made in the same manner as in polite and sensible 
conversation. To render pauses graceful and expressive, 
you must make them, not only in the right places, but with 
proper tones and inflections, just as you do in talking, when 
you are in earnest and entirely free from all embarrassment. 
You must pay sufficient attention to the punctuation of 
what you read, to ascertain the meaning and the true gram- 
matical construction. Then read right on as you would 
talk on the same subject. Never be so trammeled with the 
points and marks of punctuation as to make your reading 
stiff and artificial; stopping at an interrogation point, a 
colon, or a period, as if you had run against a post. 

The pauses that I have just explained are properly called 
sentential pauses, because they help us get the sense of what 
we read. Besides these, we have emphatic, and poetic 
pauses. 

An emphatic pause is made after something of great im- 
portance is said on which we wish to fix the hearer's atten- 
tion, and sometimes before an important thing is said. Such 



ELOCUTION. 333 

pauses should not be used too often, lest they occasion dis- 
appointment and disgust by raising expectations that are 
not fully answered. 

Poetic pauses (sometimes called harmonic pauses) are 
such as the harmony of verse requires. They are subdivided 
into the final pause and the cesural pause. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes 
the verse, and marks the measure. The cesural pause di- 
vides it into equal or unequal parts. ' 

These pauses sometimes coincide with the sentential 
pause, and are sometimes used where the sense requires no 
pause. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering 
with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the 
bound of the meter; and being made only by a suspension 
of the voice, not by any change of note, it can never afiect 
the sense. 

The end of a line, where there is no pause in the mean- 
ing, should be marked only by so slight a suspension of 
sound as to distinguish the passage from one line to another, 
without injuring the sense ; as. 

The tallest pines feel most the power 
Of wintery blast ; the loftiest tower 
Comes heaviest to the ground. 

The cesural pause generally occurs after the fourth, the 
fifth, the sixth, or the seventh syllable of the line ; and oc- 
casionally, though rarely, after the second, the third, or the 
eighth syllable ; as, 

No longer now" that golden age appears, 
When patriarch wits" survived a thousand years: 
Now length of fame" (our second life) is lost, 
And bare threescore" is all even that can boast : 
Our sons" their fathers failing language see. 
And such as Chaucer is" shall Dryden be. 
So when the faithful pencil" has designed 



334 ENGLISH G R A M M A R . 

Some bright idea" of the master's mind, 
Where a new world" leaps out at his command, 
And ready Nature" waits upon his hand ; 
When the ripe colors" soften and unite, 
And sweetly melt" into just shade and light ; 
When mellowing years" their full perfection give. 
And each bold figure" just begins to live. 
The treacherous colors" the fair art betray. 
And all the bright creation" fades away 1 

Unhappy wit," like most mistaken things, 

Atones not" for that envy which it brings. 

In youth alone" its empty praise we boast. 

But soon the short-lived vanity" is lost ; 

Like some fair flower" the early spring supplies, 

That gaily blooms," but even in blooming dies. 

When the cesural pause follows the fourth syllable the 
melody of the verse is brisk and lively ; as, 

On her white breast" a sparkling cross she wore, 
Which Jews might kiss," and infidels adore.* 

When it occurs after the fifth syllable the melody is 
graver, and the verse becomes more smooth and flowing ; as, 

The groves of Eden," vanished now so long, 
Live in description," and look green in song. 

When it follows the sixth syllable the melody becomes 
still graver, and the movement of the verse more solemn 
and majestic ; as. 

Devotion's self shall steal" a thought from heaven, 
One human tear shall drop," and be forgiven. 

Some verses require harmonic pauses before and after the 
cesural, which are properly called demi-cesural pauses ; as, 

Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees. 

* Drill your pupils in poetic pausee when they have Btudied versification. 



ELOCUTION. 335 

Tones are the natural expression of our feelings. They 
are understood alike by the learned and tlie ignorant. They 
are to the voice what the expression of the countenance is 
to the face, the signs of internal feeling. All our passions 
and emotions are made manifest alike by our tones and our 
looks : the angry tone and the frowning countenance are 
equally expressive of anger, and are understood alike by all; 
by the little child, as well as the aged sage ; by the rudest 
savage, as well as the most polished citizen. If you should 
say that you are very angry, or very much grieved, in a 
cheerful tone of voice, and with a smiling countenance, 
instead of being believed, you would be laughed at. 

Every act of the mind, every exertion of the fancy, and 
every emotion of the heart, has its peculiar tone of voice 
exactly suited to the degree of internal feeling. The Author 
of our being has impressed this language of emotion upon 
our nature in the same manner as he has done with regard 
to the rest, of the animal world ; all of which express their 
various feelings by various tones. Appropriate tones cannot 
be acquired by art : they must arise from genuine native 
feeling. Spurious tones, like counterfeit coin, are easily 
detected. 

The best rule that I can give you for acquiring the right 
tones in reading is, to follow nature. Study what you read 
till you understand it fully. Enter into the spirit of the 
author, and make his sentiments your own. Reflect upon 
them till you think and feel as he did. Then the proper 
tones will come unsought, and flow spontaneously from the 
heart. Correct bad habits ; and avoid affected tones, and 
all unnatural tones, employed by those who " imitate hu- 
manity so abominably." When the Lord has given us good 
natural voices, is it not a sin and shame for us to spoil them 
by afl'ectation ? 

P. — Will you tell us how to use inflections 

J/r. 8. — Questions that cannot be answered by yes or wo, 



336 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

take the falling inflection ; as, "Whose books are these ?" 
" What are jou doing ? " " How do they read ? " " Where 
can wisdom be found ? " Direct questions that can be an- 
swered by yes or no, take the rising inflection ; as, ^* Are 
these books yours ? " " Have you learned your lessons ? " 
" Do they read correctly ? " '* Will you go to school with 
me to-day?" Indirect questions take the circumflex inflec- 
tion ; as, " You will go to-morrow, then ?" The circumflex 
inflection is sometimes called the waving slide. When two 
questions are connected by or, the former takes the rising 
inflection, and the latter takes the falling inflection ; as, 
" Do you study grammar, or arithmetic ? " " Did you sell 
your books, or lend them ? " Take nature for your guide : 
read every question Just as you would ask it, if you were 
talking. Then the right inflections will come of their own 
accord, and be natural and easy. Why, the smallest children 
in the school seldom fail to use the right inflections in their 
conversation. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Mr. S. — We have dwelt on elocution long enough for all 
practical purposes. We will now proceed to punctuation. 
As you observe the pauses very well in reading, I suppose 
you know the marks that represent them. 

These are called the points of punctuation. ISTow look at 
your reading lessons, and tell me what point we use at the 
end of a sentence. 

jg'.—'VYe generally use a period at the end of a sentence. 
When a question is asked we use an interrogation point; 
and when considerable feeling is expressed we use an excla- 
mation point. 

J. — A period is used after an abbreviated word, and after 
letters that represent numbers, and in arithmetic, before the 



PUNCTUATION. 337 

figures that represent decimals; as, Wm. for William; 
F. R S. for Fellow of tlie Royal Society; XIV. for fourteen- 
or fourteenth ; .6 and 3.35. But, as the period does not 
denote a pause when it is thus used, it does not supersede 
any other point that the sense requires ; and therefore an 
interrogation point, or an exclamation point, a colon, a 
semicolon, dash, or comma, may be used immediately after 
it. 

Mr. S. — Are periods ever used after separate words or 
phrases? Look at the words and phrases that you find 
placed over the pages and the different pieces of poetry and 
prose in your books, and see how they are punctuated. 
Write a few of tliem, and punctuate them just as they are 
punctuated in your books. Look sharp, and learn from 
observation. 

M. — They all have periods after them. Spring. Sum- 
mer. Autumn. Winter. The Beauties of Creation. 

Mr. S. — These are called the head-lines, captions, or 
headings. 

R. — Periods, and also interrogation points, are placed 
after single words and fragments of sentences that are used 
to ask or answer questions ; as, " Have you seen your sis- 
ter? Yes. When? To-day. Was there anybody with 
her ? Certainly. Who ? Ida. Is she at home ? No, sir. 
Whose book is this ? Mine. How do you like the sermon ? 
Very well indeed. How do you like the singing ? Not at 
all, sir." 

H. — Do we ever use an exclamation point, or an interro- 
gation point, before we come to the end of a sentence ? 

Mr. S. — We generally use an exclamation point after an 
exclamatory expression, anywhere in the sentence; and an 
interrogation point at the end of a question, whether the 
sentence is ended or not; as, " ! how they run!" "0 
Liberty! what crimes are committed in thy name!'* 
" Where then — ah ! where shall poverty reside ? " " What I 
15 



338 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

art thou the Thracian robber, of whose exploits I have heard 
so much?" "Are all apostles? are all prophets? are all 
teachers ? are all workers of miracles ? Have all the gifts 
of healing ? do all speak with tongues ? do all interpret ? " 

T. — How can we tell exactly where the end of a sentence 
is? 

Mr. S. — A sentence is finished when it makes complete 
sense. 

J. — After finishing a sentence, we sometimes say a little 
more connected to it or depending on it ; as, " I can't 
come to school this afternoon : mother will make me stay 
at home, because I am sick." " I can't come to school this 
afternoon " makes complete sense ; so does " mother will 
make me stay at home ; " and so does " I am sick." Are 
these expressions sentences ? 

Mr. 8. — When they are taken separately they are sen- 
tences ; but when they are taken together they are clauses 
of a compound sentence, which is not entirely finished so as 
to make complete sense till we come to the end of the last 
clause, as you can see by observing how they depend on each 
other. "I can't come to school this afternoon." Why? 
" Mother will make me stay at home. " Why ? " I am sick." 
Each of these expressions is a sentence. "I can't come to 
school this afternoon : mother wdll make me stay at home, 
because I am sick." Here they are clauses of a compound 
sentence. 

E. — Is tvJiy a sentence ? 

Mr. S. — It is only the fragment of a sentence; for the 
essential parts, the verb and its subject, are omitted. To 
complete the sentence we supply what is understood; thus, 
"Why can't you come to school this afternoon?" "Why 
Avill your mother make you stay at home ? " * 



• See my Primary English Grammar, page 108-116. 



P U N C T U A T I 25" . 339 

G. — What shall we use between the clauses of a com- 
pound sentence ? 

Mr. S. — Between such clauses as are the least dependent 
in sense use a colon ; as, " Straws swim upon the surface : 
pearls lie at the bottom." *• Truth is born with us : we must 
do violence to our nature, to shake off our veracity." " Fa- 
ther, forgive them : they know not what they do." When 
the sense requires a closer union of the clauses, but nbt close 
enough for a comma, use a semicolon; as, "Straws swim 
upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." "Truth 
is born with us ; and we must do violence to our nature, to 
shake off our veracity." " Father, forgive them ; for they 
know not what they do." When there is a connective be- 
tween such clauses a semicolon is generally used ; and a co- 
lon, when there is no connective between them. But when 
several clauses, slightly dependent in sense, follow one 
another in quick succession, without a connective, they are 
separated by semicolons ; as, " The sky was overspread with 
clouds; the sun was darkened; the wind roared in the 
woods; the lightning flashed; the thunder rolled." When 
the sense requires a closer union of the clauses, they are sep- 
arated by commas ; as, " The sun shines, the grass grows, 
the flowers bloom, the bees hum, and the birds sing." 

When the sense is suspended, when the sentence breaks 
off abruptly, when an emphatic pause is required, and when 
there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment, or a rhetorical 
echo of the same expression, use a dash ; as, " The pages of 
history— why are they so dark and sad ? " " Was there ever 
a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there ever — 
but I scorn to boast." " I am your lordship's most obse- 
quious—zounds! what a peer of the realm!" "He falls 
like Lucifer, — never to rise again." "The naked every day 
he clad— when he put on his clothes." " Still, what art thou 
but a robber— a base, dishonest robber ? " " Can Parliament 
be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give its sanction to 



340 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

measures thus obtruded and forced upon it ? — measures, my 
lords, which have reduced this late-flourishing kingdom to 
scorn and contempt." "Edmund Burke was a man who 
added to the pride, not merely of his country, but of his spe- 
cies; — a man who robed the very soul of inspiration in the 
splendors of a pure and overflowing eloquence." 

" Something there is more needful than expense ; 
And something previous e'en to taste : — 'tis sense." 

When the sense requires a less significant pause than a 
dash, and a shorter one than a semicolon, use a comma ; as, 
"When ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathen 
do.-*' 

An oblique remark that breaks the unity of the sentence 
into which it is thrown, and may therefore be omitted with- 
out injuring the sense or construction, should be inclosed 
by the marks of parenthesis; as, "Are they ministers of 
Christ? (I speak as a fool,) I am more." "I have seen 
charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air of 
pity." " While they wish to please, (and why should they 
not wish it?) they disdain dishonorable means." 

A word, phrase, or sentence, inserted to give an explana- 
tion, to-correct an error, or to supply an omission, should be 
enclosed by brackets ; as, " Give me a cup of sack. [He 
drinks.] You rogue! there is hme in this sack." "Beware 
of false prophets, which [who] come to you in sheep's cloth- 
ing." "We speak that [which] we do know." 

A passage or expression that is quoted in the exact words 
of the author, should be inclosed by quotation marks; as, 
" The proper study of mankind is man." 

To show the omission of some letter or letters an apos- 
trophe is used, also to denote the possessive case of nouns ; 
as, " The midnight moon serenely smiles o'er Nature's soft 
repose." 



PUNCTUATIOK. 341 

E. — How can we tell whether brackets or the marks of 
parenthesis ought to be used? 

Mr. S. — The marks of parenthesis are used by a writer 
to inclose an oblique remark, thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence in his own discourse or composition : brackets 
are employed by a reporter, editor or compiler, to inclose 
something which he inserts into another person's composi- 
tion or discourse to give an explanation, to correct an error, 
to supply an omission, or to make some remark, 'i'hey are 
also used by dramatical writers to inclose directions to the 
actors, and by authors and compilers of psalms and hymns 
to inclose stanzas that may be omitted by the singers. Look 
at these examples. 

There is such a thing (I speak feelingly) as being weak in faith. 
Often have I gazed (who has not ?) on the declining sun, till my eyes 
have swum in tears. 

Thus nature gives us (let it check our pride) 
The virtue nearest to our vice allied. 

I gladly shunned [him] who gladly fled from me. 

They who sow and [they who] reap will rejoice together. 

Galileo discovered [invented] the telescope ; and Hervey invented 
[discovered] the circulation of the blood. 

This is not an overdrawn picture ; for — [Pausing and looking at 
the congregation,] you know how it is yourselves; [Laughter;] and 
I put it to you if some of you do not feel exactly like this in regard to 
manual labor, 

Caesar had his Brutus ; Charles, his Cromwell ; and George the 
Third — [" Treason ! treason ! treason ! " resounded from the neighbor- 
hood of the Chair;] may profit by their example. Sir, if this is trea- 
son, [Bowing to the speaker,] make the most of it. 

Sweet flower, with flowers thy bridal bed I strew, — 

(0 woe, thy canopy is dust and stones !) 
Which with sweet water nightly I will dew ; 

Or, wanting that, with tears distill'd by moans : 
The obsequies that I for thee ^vlll keep, 

Nightly shall be, to strew thy grave and weep. 



842 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Romeo. Here's to my love. — [Drinks.'] O true apotliecary ! 

Thy drugs are quick. — Thus with a kiss I die. [Bieti.] 
Friab. Come, go, good Juliet. — [Woise again.] I dare no longer 

stay. 
Juliet. Yea, noise ?— then I'll be brief. — O happy dagger ! 

[SnatcMrig Romeo's dagger^ 
This shall be thy sheath ; [Stahs herself;] there rest and 
let me die. [Falls on Romeo's hody, and dies.] 

R. — How can we tell exactly when to use quotation 
marks ? 

Mr. S. — Use them when you introduce into your TVTit- 
ings a direct quotation or example, — when you record what 
another person said or what you said yourself, in the very 
words that he or you employed. What did John say to you ? 
and what did you say ? 

R. — He said he had lost the book that I lent him, and 
asked whether he should pay me for it or buy me another 
book. I told him that he need not trouble himself about it ; 
but wait, and see if he could not find it. 

Mr. 8. — Are these the very words that you and he used ? 
If they are, they ought to be inclosed by quotation marks. 

R. — They are not exactly. He said, " I have lost the 
book that you lent me. Shall I pay you for it, or buy you 
another book "i" I replied, " You need not trouble yourself 
about it : wait, and see if you cannot find it." 

E. — I have never seen quotation points in the Bible. 
Are there no direct quotations in it ? 

Mr. S. — Certainly : it abounds with them ; and because 
they are so numerous, it would give the pages a crowded 
and confused appearance, to inclose them with quotation 
points. These points are therefore omitted in the Bible, 
and every direct quotation is distinguished by beginning 
with a capital. 

i/".— "What do you call this mark at the end of the lines 
in our reading lessons ? 



P U N C T U A T I O I^" . 



343 



Mr. S. — We call it a hyphen. It is used after a part of 
a broken word at the end of a line, to connect it to the rest 
of the word at the beginning of the next line. It is also 
used between the parts of a compound word ; as, " Curly- 
headed, mischief-making, good-for-nothing." 

When you divide a word at the end of a line, never di- 
vide a syllable. 

Can any of you write upon the blackboard all the points 
and marks of punctuation ? 

/. — I can try, sir. Here are all that I can think of. 



The period, 




[ . J 


, The brackets. 


[[]]. 


The interrogation point, 


[? ■ 


The quotation points. 


[""]. 


The exclamation 


point. 


[ ! ] 


The apostrophe. 


[ • ]. 


The colon, 




[ : ] 


, The hyphen, 


[ - ], 


The semicolon, 




L ) J 


, The section. 


[ § ], 


The comma. 




L > . 


, The paragraph, 


[■^ I 


The dash. 




[— " 


, The index or hand. 


{Wl 


The marks of parenthesis, [ ( ) ] 


, The marks of ellipsis. 





[ — , 



]. 



H. — You have omitted the caret, the dieresis, and the 
brace. 

Mr. 8. — The caret has been aptly called the blunderer's 
mark. It is used only in manuscripts, to show where some- 
thing ought to be inserted, which has been accidentally omit- 
ted, and which is written over the line ; as^ " I have re- 

your 

ceived^letter." 

The dieresis is placed over the last of two adjacent vowels 
to show that they are pronounced separately ; as, " Creation, 
coalesce, cooperate, aerial." 

To prevent repetition, braces are used to connect several 
words with one common term ; thus, 

60 seconds ) (1 minute, 

60 minutes > make s 1 hour, 
24 hours ; ( 1 day. 



344 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The index points out something that requires particular 
attention ; as, i^° No smoking is allowed here. 

The marks of ellipsis are used where an important letter, 
word, or sentence, or several of them, are omitted; as, "They 

never mention the Q n or P 1 at length.'* " This 

way of writing was first of all introduced by T — m Br — wn, 

of facetious memory." *' F y and M — ie are once more 

implored to return to their broken-hearted parents." " He 
told me to go to the . . . . ; and then I came directly to you. 
" Content is natural wealth. * * * Luxury is artificial 
poverty." 

G. — Of what use are the section and the paragraph ? 

Mr. S. — These marks are going out of use, and will soon 
be laid aside. The former is occasionally used before a sec ■ 
tion ; and the latter, at the beginning of a paragraph. But 
the commencement of a paragraph is generally denoted by 
an indentation at the beginning of the first line of it ; and 
the end of it in prose, by a break at the end of the last line, 
leaving a blank space between it and the next paragraph. A 
section, which is a subdivision of a chapter, book, or writing, 
sometimes contains but one paragraph ; and sometimes, 
more than one. 

B. — What marks are used to direct the reader to some 
note in the margin or at the bottom of the page ? 

Mr. S. — The asterisk *, the obelisk f, the double dag- 
ger X , parallel lines || , letters and figures. 

M. — Let us have an exercise in writing and punctuating 
sentences. 

3fr. S. — Very well. Begin with short sentences requir- 
ing nothing but periods, interrogation points, or exclama- 
tion points ; and gradually advance to longer ones requiring 
colons, semicolons, commas, etc., till you understand the use 
of all the points. To guide you in this exercise, I will write 
and punctuate a few sentences myself. As I write a sentence 
on the blackboard, write it on your slates and punctuate it 



PUNCTUATION. 345 

before I punctuate it. Then you all can see how your 
punctuation agrees with mine. 

Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity towards all men. 

The gardens of the world produce only deciduous flowers. Peren- 
nial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above. Roses with- 
out thorns are the growth of paradise alone. 

Where is Abel thy brother ? What hast thou done ? 

Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord ? or who shall stand in 
his holy place ? 

How many bright eyes grow dim ! How many rosy cheeks turn 
pale ! How many lovely forms fade away into the tomb ! 

Liberty ! sound once delightful to every Roman ear 1 

Nature confesses some atonement to be necessary. 

There is no mortal truly wise and restless at once. 

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness. 

Often is the smile of gayety assumed while the heart aches within. 

Nature confesses some atonement to be necessary : the gospel dis- 
covers that the necessary atonement is made. 

There is no mortal truly wise and restless at once : wisdom is the 
repose of minds. 

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness : there 
is no such thing in the world. 

Often is the smile of gayety assumed while the heart aches 
within : though folly may laugh, guilt will sting. 

In those days there was no king in Israel : every man did that 
which was right in his own eyes. 

There is no mortal truly wise and restless at once ; for wisdom is 
the repose of minds. 

Choose that course of life which is the most excellent ; and cus- 
tom will render it the most delightful. 

Truth may be expressed without art or aflectation ; but a lie stands 
in need of both. 

The dishes of luxury cover his table ; the voice of harmony lulls 
him in his bowers ; he breathes the fragrance of the groves of Java, 
and sleeps upon the down of the cygnets of the Ganges. 

Arise, shine ; for thy light is come, and the glory of the Lord is 
risen upon thee. 

Awake, awake ; put on thy strength, O Zion ; put on thy beauti- 
ful garments, O Jerusalem, the holy city. 

Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them 



3-10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that hate you, and pray for them which [that] despitef ully use you 
and persecute you. 

The rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and 
beat upon that house ; and it fell : and great was the fall of it. 

The pride of wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning, pitia- 
ble ; the pride of dignity, ridiculous ; and the pride of bigotry, insup- 
portable. 

The ties of friendship were not formed in vain : 
" Congenial spirits part to meet again." 

Intrinsic worth, and not riches, ought to procure esteem. 

The husband, wife, and children, suffered extremely. 

Plain, honest truth wants no artificial covering. 

In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 

Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and con- 
sistent. 

Friend, I pretend to no glory, — the Lord preserve me from it,— all 
glory is his ; — but this I say, that I was his instrument in a more glo- 
rious work than that performed by thee — incomparably more glorious. 

Alas, poor Yorick ! — I knew him, Horatio, — a fellow of infinite 
jest. 

Leave me. — Take off his chains, and use him well. — Are we then 
80 much alike ? — Alexander to a robber? — Let me reflect. 

Whatever is, is right, — This world, 'tis true. 
Was made for Caesar, — but for Titus too. 

Since man to man is so unjust, 
I cannot tell what man to trust : 
I've trusted many to my sorrow ; 
So pay to-day, — I'll trust to-morrow. 

Beauty and strength, combined with virtue and piety, — how 
lovely in the sight of men ! how pleasing to Heaven ! — peculiarly 
pleasing, because, with every temptation to deviate, they voluntarily 
walk in the path of duty. 

Vice is not of such a nature that we can say to it, " Hitherto shalt 
thou come, and no farther," 

He who is a stranger to industry may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 

When Socrates was asked what man approached the nearest to 
perfect happiness, he answered, " That man who has the fewest 
wants, " 



PUNCTUATION. 347 

Personification is a rhetorical figure bj which we attribute life 
and action to inanimate objects ; as, " The ground thirsts for rain ; " 
" The earth smiles with plenty." 

" I'll live to-morrow, will a wise man say 
To-morrow is too late : — then live to-day. 

All this dread order break — for whom? for thee? 
Vile worm ! — O madness ! pride ! impiety ! 

My fortune (for I'll mention all. 
And more than you dare tell) is small. 
Yet every friend partakes my store ; 
And want goes smiling from my door. 

The bliss of man, (could pride that blessing find,) 
Is not to act or think beyond mankind. 

All forms that perish other forms supply ; 
(By turns we catch the vital breath and die ;) 
Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne, 
They rise, they break, and to that sea return. 

t/". — Let US write and punctuate a few sentences our- 
selves. 

Mr, S. — Each of you may write and punctuate all the 
sentences you can this evening, and bring them here to- 
morrow. Write original sentences, if you can ; but if you 
cannot, write something that you have committed to mem- 
ory: or one of you may read some well-punctuated book, 
and the rest of you write what is read and punctuate it, 
without looking at the book. 

In using capital letters while you are writing, follow the 
directions that I now give you. 

Write the pronoun / and the exclamation in capitals, 
also letters representing numbers, and the first letter of 
every abbreviated word ; as, IX. for nine or ninth ; D. D. 
for doctor of divinity ; Prof, for professor; and U. S. A. for 
the United States of America. 



348 ENGLISH G Tt A M M A K . 

Begin every sentence with a capital, every direct quota- 
tion or example, every line in poetry, every proper noun, 
and every word derived from a proper noun; also every 
principal word in the titles of books and other publications, 
every designation of parties, sects or societies; such as, 
Whig, Tory, Catholic, Protestant, &c. ; every title of honor 
or respect, and every appellation of the Deity; as God, Je- 
hovah, the Almighty, the Eternal, the Supreme Being, the 
Holy One, the Lord, the Messiah, the Redeemer. 

Mr. S. — Now write and punctuate the sentences that I 
read, without looking at 3'our books. 

Wliy looks your Grace so heavily to-day ? 

Oil ! I have had a miserable night ! 

O vain and inconstant world ! O fleeting and transient life 1 When 
will the sons of men learn to think of thee as they ought ? 

One light always shines upon us from above. One clear and direct 
path is always pointed out to man. 

Prosperity gains friends : adversity tries them. 

Do not insult a poor man : his misery entitles him to pity. 

Avoid affectation ; for it is a contemptible weakness. 
Nothing is denied to well-directed labor : nothing valuable is ever 
to be attained without it. 

The path of truth is a plain and safe one ; that of falsehood, a per- 
plexing maze. 

Content is natural wealth ; and luxury is artificial poverty. 

It is with narrow-souled people as with narrow-necked bottles : 
the less they have in them, the more noise they make in pouring it 
out. 

The Union cannot be dissolved : its fortunes are too brilliant to be 
marred ; its destinies, too powerful to be resisted. 

Tlie sea saw it and fled : Jordan was driven back. 

The Lord hath been mindful of us : he will bless us ; he will bless 
the house of Israel ; he vrill bless the house of Aaron. 

Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 
that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue 
to make discoveries, of which we have not the least idea. 

A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty 
governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us 



PUNCTUATIOK. 349- 

of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indigna- 
tion and wrath awaiting the wielded ;— these are the considerations 
which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt. 

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospects of 
many a youth. 

In OLir health, life, possessions, connections, pleasures, there are 
causes of decay imperceptibly working. 

Discomposed thoughts, agitated passions, and a rufSed temper, 
poison every pleasure of life. 

Conscious guilt renders us mean-spirited, timorous, and base. " 

An upright mind will never be at a loss to discover what is just 
and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. 

A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, ad- 
ventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends resolutely, and continues 
a friend unchangeably. 

The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 

On the one hand, are the divine approbation and immortal honor : 
on the other, (remember and beware,) are the stings of conscience and 
endless infamy. 

It was a wild night— and a very, very long one. 

Francis, Francis, Francis ! — Anon, anon, sir. 

At all times, and on all occasions — morning, noon, and night ; 
spring, summer, autumn, and winter — the Ha, ha, ha, ha, ha ! of my 
neighbor was ever ready. 

When the road was so dark, and the night was so cold, 
And Pat and his dog were grown weary and old, 
How snugly we slept in my old coat of gray ! 
And he licked me for kindness — my poor dog Tray. 
******* 

Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and blind? 
Can I find one to guide me, so faithful and kind ? 
To my sweet native village, so far, far away, 
I can never more return with my poor dog Tray. 

Some strange noise or dream awoke me. It was midnight. The 
storm had ceased. The sky was bright and clear. The war of elements 
was over. Nature seemed to make a pause. I could not hear the 
rustling of a leaf. I realized that I was all alone. There was a fear- 
ful silence — *' a solemn stillness." Suddenly, a wild, terrific scream 
resounded through the woods. I started from my bed of leaves, and 



350 i:nglish grammar. 

shouted, " Who's there ? " with all mv might. " Who, who, who ! " 
replied a jolly owl, laughing all my fears away. 

Between fame and true honor a distinction is to be made. The 
former is a loud and noisy applause ; the latter, a more silent and in- 
ternal homage. Fame floats on the breath of the multitude : honor 
rests on the judgment of the thinking. Fame may give praise while 
it withholds esteem : true honor implies esteem mingled with respect. 
The one regards particular distinguished talents : the other looks up 
to the whole character. 

*• What ! " said I, " does virtue, then, reside in the vale ? " " I am 
found," said she, "in the valley, and I illuminate the mountain; I 
cheer the cottager at his toil, and inspire the sage at his meditations ; 
I mingle in the crowd of cities, and bless the hermit in his cell. I 
have a temple in every heart that owns my influence ; and to him that 
wishes for me I am already present. Science may raise thee to emi- 
nence ; but I alone can guide thee to felicity." 

Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist. In one, 
we admire the man ; in the other, the work : Homer hurries and trans- 
ports us with a commanding impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with an at- 
tractive majesty: Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil 
bestows with a careful magnificence : Homer, like the Nile, pours out 
his riches with a boundless overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, 
with a gentle and constant stream. When we behold their battles, 
the two poets resemble the heroes they celebrate : Homer, boundless 
and irresistible as Achilles, bears all before him, and shines more and 
more as the tumult increases ; Virgil, calmly daring, like ^neas, ap- 
pears undisturbed in the midst of the action, disposes all about him, 
and conquers with tranquillity. And when we look upon their ma- 
chines. Homer seems like his own Jupiter in his terrors, shaking 
Olympus, scattering the lightnings, and firing the heavens; Virgil, 
like the same power in his benevolence, counselling with the gods, 
laying plans for empires, and regularly ordering his whole creation. 

To lie down on the pillow, after a day spent in temperance, in be- 
neficence, and in piety — how sweet it is ! 

We wait till to morrow to be happy — alas ! why not to-day ? Shall 
we be younger? Are we sure we shall be healthier? Will our pas- 
sions become feebler, and our love of the world less ? 

If thou art he so much respected once — But, oh, how fallen I how 
degraded ! 

Thou dost not mean— No, no : thou wouldst not have me make a 
trial of my skill upon my child 1 



PUNCTUATION. 351 

A large body of French infantry advanced in good order across — 
[Here the despatch breaks off.] 

Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) 
how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ? 

It was represented by an analogy, (oh, how inadequate ! ) which 
was borrowed from paganism. 

Are you fond of pictures ? Most people are — the child of seven, 
and the man and woman of seventy. 

When the blind — they who were one blessed with sight — when 
they roll upwards their sightless balls, you may guess what they would 
give for a glance at that bright firmament above them, which you and 
I regard with little emotion. 

He suffered, — but his pangs are o'er ; 

Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled ; 
Had friends, — his friends are now no more ; 

And foes, — his foes are dead. 

How fearful, then, is the expression : " The city was given up to 
pillage !"**** Household furniture is destroyed. Cabinets, 
bureaus, and boxes, are broken to pieces. Jewels, money, curiosities, 
and clothing, are huddled together, to be carried away. Paintings are 
rent, sculpture mutilated, inscriptions defaced; and family records, 
love tokens, and gifts of friendship, are torn, trampled, and burned. 
Oaths and blasphemies resound ; riot and debauchery are everywhere 
seen, with the wildest forms of cruelty and death. 

Though I thus speak to those of many days, yet have I a word for 
the smooth brow and the ruddy check, — for the bright eye, the fair 
form, and the manly frame. In the days of my youth, an aged oak, 
hollow, blighted, and almost leafless, stood on a rising ground ; and 
beside it grew a sapling, green and flourishing. I left them side by 
side, and returned not to the place till fifteen summers and winters 
had passed away. And was the old oak gone ? Had the sapling be- 
come a stately tree ? No ! There stood the hollow oak as in my 
younger days ; but the place that knew [had known] the sapling, knew 
it no more. Thus has it been with old Humphrey ! Thus has he been 
mercifully preserved, while the young around him have fallen in th^ 
dust. Receive, then, the lessons of instruction that his pen is endeav- 
oring to convey. Reflect on the uncertainty of time ; attend, vdthout 
delay, to the things of eternity, and ponder on the arresting words of 
the New Zealander : " Make haste ! for my sun is fast going down." 



352 EKGLIsa GRAMMAR. 

We do not, by our words and deeds, leave a general impression 
that we are sensible of the value of time ; we do not say, emphatically, 
by our prevailing spirit, " We see the emptiness of earthly things ; 
we are seeking after a heavenly inheritance ; we are standing on the 
confines of an eternal world ; we have no time to spare ; we feel that 
we must make haste, for our sun is fast going down," 

Time is but a span, a speck ; and the gloom of the Christian will 
give way to glory. Shadows shall be exchanged for sunshine ; pain, 
for pleasure ; and temporary grief, for everlasting joy. 

Mr. 8. — We have had a thorough exercise in punctuat- 
ing sentences — a great variety of sentences requiring all the 
points and marks of punctuation, and exemplifying every 
one of them in all its applications. All the particulars have 
been systematically presented and clearly illustrated. From 
this exercise can any of you draw a definition of punctuation ? 
You have had a view of all its parts arranged in systematic 
order. Can you put them together in your minds, and tell 
me what it is? Can any of you define every point and 
mark ? 

J. — Punctuation is the art of dividing a written or printed 
composition into sentences and parts of sentences, by means 
of points or marks, to show their grammatical construction, 
their dependence in sense, and the dififerent pauses and 
modulations of the voice that are required in reading. 

A period is the sign of the end of a sentence. 

An interrogation point is the sign of the end of a 
question. 

An exclamation point is the sign of the end of an ex- 
clamatory expression. 

The colon is the sign of a grand division of sentences 
into such parts as are the least dependent in sense. 

The semicolon is the sign of a division of sentences into 
such parts as are too closely united in sense for a colon, but 
not closely enough for a comma. 

The comma is the sign of a division of sentences into 



PUNCTUATION. 353 

such parts as are too closely united in sense for a semicolon, 
and yet require a pause between them. 

A dash is the sign of a suspension of the sense, an abrupt 
breaking-off of a sentence, or a sudden interruption, an em- 
phatic pause, an unexpected turn in the sentiment, or a rhe- 
torical echo of the same expression. 

A period generally denotes a pause of six syllables; a 
colon, four; a semicolon, two; and a comma, one. 

Dashes, interrogation points, and exclamation points, de- 
note pauses of variable length, and peculiar modulations of 
the voice. 

The marks of parenthesis are two curved lines inclosing 
an oblique remark, which is thrown in between the parts of 
a sentence, and is read quicker and in a weaker tone of 
voice. 

Brackets are two hooked lines inclosing something that 
a writer inserts into a speech or composition, to give direc- 
tions or an explanation, to correct an error, to supply an 
omission, or to make some remark. 

Quotation points are two inverted commas at the begin- 
ning, and two apostrophes at the end, of something that is 
quoted in the exact words of the author. 

A quotation within a quotation has but one inverted 
comma at the beginning of it, and but one apostrophe at 
the end of it; as, "God said, 'Let there be light;' and 
there was light.'' 

J/r. S. — These are good definitions, James. We'll use 
them till some of us can make better ones. Now let us re- 
view our work, and see if we can deduce from it any general 
rules for punctuating sentences. I have already given you 
sufficient directions for using all the points, excepting colons, 
semicolons, and commas. I will now present you all the 
rules that they require. 

F, — It troubles me the most of all, to tell when dashes 
ought to be used. 



354 ENGLISH GRAMilAR. 

Mr. S. — Don't make your compositions too dashy. Un- 
skillful punctuators generally use dashes when they cannot 
tell what they ought to use ; they substitute them for colons, 
semicolons, commas, and marks of parenthesis. If we desire 
consistency and scientific regularity in punctuation, every 
point and mark should be restricted to particular uses, and 
kept within its proper bounds, and never be allowed to tres- 
pass on the province of another. Too many dashes are the 
signs of incoherent thought, uncertainty, and ignorance of 
accurate punctuation. 

EULE I. 

A comma is generally used where a verb or a connective 
is omitted. 

EXAMPLES. 

Greece liad her Homer ; and Rome, her Virgil. 

Socrates sought happiness in wisdom ; Aristippus, in pleasure ; 
and Epicurus, in both. 

It heightens smoke into flame, flame into light, and light into 
glory. 

From bad air we take disease ; from bad company, vice and im- 
perfections. 

Wise men are instructed by reason ; men of less understanding, 
by experience ; the most ignorant, by necessity ; and beasts, by nature. 

We are fearfully, wonderfully made. 

It was a warm, pleasant day ; and the island was beautiful, delight- 
ful, — full of wild, romantic scenery. 

Royalists, republicans, all parties, concurred in the illusion. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words ; health, peace, and competence. 

EULE II. 

Three or more words or phrases in the same construction 
are separated by commas ; and so are contrasted expressions, 
synonymous terms, and repetitions of the same expression. 



PUifCTUATIOK. 355 



EXAMPLES. 

By industry, frugality, and economy, they became rich. 

His fresh color, healthy appearance, and lightness of foot, betoken 
temperance. 

Do this humbly, heartily, perseveringly, and confidingly. 

There is no hurry, no bustle, no care, visible in his demeanor ; ho 
seems to have a contented, affable, and unperturbed spirit. I take 
him to be an upright, respectable, benevolent, and worthy man. 

When strength of understanding is possessed by one of agreeable 
form and features, elegant demeanor, humility of mind, and sweetness 
of temper, it is doubly delightful. 

We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are per- 
plexed, but not in despair ; persecuted, but not forsaken ; cast down, 
but not destroyed. 

So then death worketh in us, but life in you. 

A gulf, or bay, is a part of the sea extending into the land. 

They offered a pair of turtle-doves, or two young pigeons. 

I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end. 

Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that great city. 

Alas, alas, that great city Babylon, that mighty city 1 

Really, really, there seems no excuse for us. 

Alone, alone ! all, all alone ! 

But leave, oh ! leave the light of hope behind ! 

Alack the day ! she's dead, she's dead, she's dead ! 



EULE III. 

Vocative, independent, and intermediate expressions* 
that are not parentheses, are separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas, when exclamation points are not re- 
quired. 



* An intermediate expression is a word, phrase, or clause, which is used be- 
tween the parti? of a sentence, and may be omitted without injuring the construc- 
tion or destroying the sense. This the teacher can illustrate, by reading to his class 
the sentences that contain intermediate expressions, at first with them, and then 
without them. He should also point out examples of vocative, independent, and 
contrasted expressions and synonymous terms, and see that they are clearly under- 
Btood. 



356 E >; G L I S II G R A M M A E . 



EXAMPLES. 



Saul, Saul, why persecutest tliou me ? 

King Agrippa, Lelievest tliou the prophets ? 

He that is holy, let him be holy still. 

Your fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they live for 
ever ? 

Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortunes. 

It was, indeed, extended to a shameful length : modestly speak- 
ing, I believe the very chin was as long as my whole face. 

To tell the plain truth, we are both to blame. 

The king, approving the plan, put it into execution. 

Continue, my dear friends, to cultivate your minds. 

To you, my worthy benefactors, I am indebted, under Providence, 
for all I enjoy. 

Come then, companion of my toils, let us take fresh courage, per- 
severe, and hope to the end. 

Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. 

Content, the offspring of virtue, dwells both in retirement and in 
the active scenes of life. 

An elevated genius, employed in little things, appears like the sun 
in his evening declination. 

Of the three cardinal virtues, faith, hope, and charity, the greatest 
is charity. 

Such exaggerated expressions as this, " He ran like lightning," 
should be avoided. 

RULE IV. 

A colon is used before a quotation, precept, saying, or 
remark, (if it is not an intermediate expression,) when it is 
in apposition with a preceding word, and is not introduced 
by a connective or a verb; but when it is introduced by such 
a verb as say, quoth, cry, exclaim, reply, or ansiver, it is sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Remember this plain rule : " When you have nothing to say, say 
nothing ; and stop speaking when you have said all that you have to 



PUNCTUATION. 357 

TMs is my answer : Not that I loved Csesar less, but Rome more. 

When we doubt the mercy and grace of the Redeemer, we should 
read over again and again these heart-sustaining texts : " This is a 
faithful saying, and worthy of all acceptation, that Jesus Christ came 
into the world to save sinners." " He is able also to save them to the 
uttermost that come unto God by him." 

He smiled, and cried, " Caesar, thou canst not hurt me," 
The doctor said, that fever always produces thirst. 

the sweet joy this sentence gives : 

1 know that my Redeemer lives ! 

May this plain truth be treasured in your heart : 
To copy nature is the end of art. 

While man exclaims, " See ail things for my use I " 
** See man for mine," replies a pampered goose. 

RULE V. 

A semicolon is used before a specification of particulars 
that are in apposition with a preceding comprehensive term. 
When namely f that is, to wit, or as, precedes a specification 
of particulars, or an example, it is followed by a comma and 
preceded by a semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

English Grammar is divided into four parts ; Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody, 

There are six Eastern States ; namely, Maine, New Hampshire, 
Vermont, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. 

A finite verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; 
as, " The bird sings, the birds sing ; I lear/i, thou learnest, he learns." 

There are six tenses ; [:] * the present, the past, and the future ; 
the perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect. 



* In accordance with Rule VII, and the practice of many -writers, it seems 
P'-oper to use a colon before a specification of particulars, when any of them are 
pcparated by a semicolon. 



358 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE VI. 

When several clauses or parts of sentences, slightly de- 
pendent in sense, follow one another in a series, if they are 
not interrogative or exclamatory, they are separated by 
semicolons ; but when they are too closely united in sense 
for semicolons, they are separated by commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

Our petitions have been slighted ; our remonstrances have produced 
additional violence and insult; our supplications have been disre- 
garded ; and we have been spurned, with contempt, from the foot of 
the throne ! 

Nature is liberal, nay, prodigal, of her gifts ; her spacious halls 
are flung open ; her goodliest exhibitions are free ; and her abundant 
banquets are " without money and without price." 

We never give either time or money for the cheerful sunbeam, 
and the grateful shower ; the gray of the morning ; the twilijjht of 
evening ; the broad blaze of noonday ; and the deep silence and dark- 
ness of the midnight hour. 

Who ever paid a farthing for the daffodil of the dale ; the purple 
heath-flower of the mountain and the moor ; the warbling of happy 
birds ; the murmuring of crystal brooks ; the wa^ing of butterflies' 
wings ; the joyous hum, and, (if I can say it without irreverence,) the 
incessant halleluia of the insect world ? 

There is a deep delight, a dear, though fearful solemnity in the 
darkened clouds ; the flash that illumines heaven ; the crash that 
shakes the solid earth ; the wild sweep of the whirlwind, and the 
voice of the angry ocean. 

She struck upon the rock, her rudder was torn away, her sails 
rent, her masts went by the board, and the wild waters made a clear 
sea over her shattered hull. 

The victory of yesterday is reversed by the victory of to-day ; the 
star of military glory, rising like a meteor, like a meteor has fallen ; 
disgrace and disaster hang on the heels of conquest and renown ; victor 
and vanquished presently pass away into oblivion ; and the world goes 
on in its course, with the loss only of so many lives and so much 
treasure. 

Farewell ! when strangers lift thy father's bier, 
And place my nameless stone without a tear ; 



PUNCTUATIOK. 359 

When eacli returning pledge liath told my child 

That Conrad's tomb is on the desert piled ; 

And when the dream of troubled fancy sees 

Its lonely rank grass waving in the breeze ; 

Who then will soothe thy grief when mine is o'er ? 

Who will protect thee, helpless EUenore ? 

If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 

If that faint murmur be the last farewell. 

If fate unite the faithful bat to part, 

Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 

Why does the brother of my childhood seem 

Restored awhile in every pleasing dream ? 

Why do I joy the lonely spot to view, 

By artless friendship blessed when life was new ? 

RULE VII. 

A colon is used between the principal parts or clauses 
of a sentence, when any one of them consists of members 
that are separated by a semicolon ; and a semicolon is used 
between the members of a sentence or clause, when the 
parts of any one of them are separated by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

He speaks, and his mandate is obeyed ; he wishes, and his wish is 
gratified : all whom he sees obey him, and all whom he hears flatter 
him. 

Swear not at all : neither by heaven ; for it is God's throne : nor 
by the earth ; for it is his footstool : neither by Jerusalem ; for it is 
the city of the great King, 

None should despair ; for God can help them : and none should 
presume ; for God can cross them. 

It is diflBcult to act the part of a true friend : for, frequently, by 
telling him of his failings, we lose his affection ; and, by remaining 
silent, we betray our confidence. 

Melissa, like the bee, gathers honey from every weed ; while 
Arachne, like the spider, sucks poison from the fairest flowers. 

Proud men have no friends in prosperity, because then they know 
nobody ; and none in adversity, because then nobody knows them. 

He that is truly polite, knows how to contradict with respect, and 



360 E N G L I'S II GRAMMAR. 

to please without adulation ; and is equally remote from insipid com- 
plaisance and low familiarity. 

Fear tliou not ; for I am with thee : be not dismayed ; for I am thy 
God : I will strengthen thee ; yea, I will help thee ; yea, I will ui^hoid 
thee with the right hand of my righteousness. 

Thy sun shall no more go down ; neither shall thy moon withdraw 
itself : for the Lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the days of 
thy mourning shall be ended. 

Sir, we have done everything that could be done, to avert the 
storm that is now coming on : we have petitioned ; we have remon- 
strated ; we have supplicated ; we have prostrated ourselves before 
the throne, and implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical 
hands of the ministry and parliament. 

No matter in what language his doom may have been pronounced ; 
no matter what complexion, incompatible with freedom, an Indian or 
an African sun may have burned upon him ; no matter in what dis- 
astrous battle his liberty may have been cloven down ; no matter with 
what solemnities he may have been devoted upon the altar of slavery ; 
tlie first moment he touches the sacred soil of Britain, the altar and 
the god sink together in the dust ; his soul walks abroad in her own 
majesty ; his body swells beyond the measure of his chains, that burst 
from around him ; and he stands redeemed, regenerated, and disen- 
thralled, by the irresistible Genius of Universal ^^mancipation. 

No wars have ravaged these lands and depopulated these villages ; 
no civil discords have been felt ; no disputed succession ; no religious 
rage ; no merciless enemy ; no affliction of Providence, which, v.hile 
it scourged for the moment, cut off the sources of resuscitation ; no 
voracious and poisoning monsters ; no ; — all this has been accomplished 
by the friendship, generosity, and kindness, of the English nation : 
they have embraced us with their protecting arms ; and lo ! these are 
the fruits of their alliance. 

He has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sumptuousness of 
palaces, or the stateliness of temples ; not to make accurate measure- 
ments of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a scale of the 
curiosities of modern arts ; nor to collect medals, or collate manu- 
scripts : — but to dive into the depths of dungeons ; to plunge into the- 
infections of hospitals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow and pain ; 
to take the gage and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt ; 
to remember the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit tl. . 
forsaken, and compare and collate the distresses of all men, in all 
countries. 



PUNCTUATION. 361 

Full many a work that has no real merit 
Is used, because some leading men prefer it : 
What recommends a book inquire a few ; 
The giddy multitude of readers, who. 
This noble few (alas, how small a number !) 
I now address, — and let the dunces slumber. 
JBLind friends, take this and carefully peruse it ; 
Judge for yourselves, and if you like it, use it. 
If it has faults in spirit or in letter, 
Condemn it not till you can find a better. 
Give it, at least, a fair, impartial trial : 
No prisoner at the bar meets a denial 
Of this inalienable right. Why, then, 
To authors are denied the rights of men ? 

RULE VIII. 

When figures are used to express large numbers, the 
periods into which they are divided are separated by commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

England paid us 15,500,000 dollars in gold. 

The square of 25,860 is 643,129,600. 

The sun is about 95,000,000 miles from the earth. 

When such numbers are expressed in words the commas 
are generally omitted ; as, " England paid us fifteen million 
five hundred thousand dollars in gold." 

Mr. S. — I Avill now give you an example to show that 
the meaning of some sentences may be reversed, if we 
punctuate them difierently. 

He is old and experienced in vice and wickedness. He is never 
found opposing the works of iniquity. He takes delight in the down- 
fall of his neighbors ; he never rejoices in promoting the happiness 
of his fellow-creatures ; he is always ready to assist in destroying the 
peace of society ; he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord ; he is un- 
commonly diligent in sowing discord among his acquaintances ; he 
takes no part in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity ; he 



36^ - ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Strives hard to build up Satan's kingdom ; he lends no aid to the sup- 
port of the gospel among the heathen ; he contributes largely to false- 
hood and evil-speaking ; he pays no attention to good advice ; he gives 
great heed to the Father of lies. He will never go to heaven : he will 
go where he will receive his reward. 

He is old and experienced. In vice and wickedness he is never 
found. Opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight ; in the down- 
fall of his neighbors he never rejoices ; in promoting the happiness 
of his fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist ; in destroying the 
peace of society he takes no pleasure ; in serving the Lord he is un- 
commonly diligent ; in sowing discord among his acquaintances he 
takes no part ; in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he 
strives hard ; to build up Satan's kingdom he lends no aid ; to support 
the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely ; to falsehood 
and evil-speaking he pays no attention ; to good advice he gives great 
heed. To the Father of lies he will never go ; to heaven he will go, 
where he will receive his reward. 

,. \Mr. S. — Here are some sentences that I have written 
without punctuating them, or giving much attention to the 
proper use of capitals. They look as if they had been 
written by some careless boy. When you have leisure, write 
and punctuate them as well as you can, and use all the cap- 
itals that are required, and no more. None of these sen- 
tences can be properly punctuated in different ways.* 



* Before your pupils write and punctuate these sentences, drill them thoroughly 
in writing and punctuating all of the examples under the rules and in the preceding 
exercises. Let some of them write without punctuating, and others punctuate the 
sentences they write without looking at the book. If you have leisure, read the 
examples yourself, and let all of them write and punctuate what you read, as soon 
as they have learned the directions I have given them for using all the points and 
marks. When they can readily punctuate all the sentences in this work, select 
sentences from well-puuctuated books, or make them yourself. Keep their atten- 
tion fixed on one point at a time till it is well understood. Pursue the course that 
is here marked out : begin with short sentences requiring nothing but periods, 
interrogation points, or exclamation points, and advance gi*adually to longer ones 
requiring colons, semicolons, commas, dashes, etc. Let some of your pupils make 
or select sentences every evening for the rest to punctuate the next day. By close 
attention to such exercises fifteen or twenty minutes eveiyday, intelligent students 
can acquire a thorough, practical knowledge of punctuation in a few weeks. 



PUNCTUATIOIT. 363 

Salute every saint in christ Jesus the brethren which are with me 
greet you all the Saints salute you chiefly they that are of csesars 
household the grace of our lord Jesus Christ be with you all amen 

Rejoice evermore pray without ceasing in every thing give thanks 
for this is the will of god in Christ Jesus cencerning you quench not 
the spirit despise not prophesyings prove all things Hold fast that 
which is good abstain from all appearance of evil 

To what are you looking forward is the fair future glowing with 
rainbow hues oh what a goodly world is this when hope and fancy 
draw its picture ' 

The lord is my Shepherd I shall not want he maketh me to lie 
down in green pastures He leadeth me beside the still waters 

The rose is beautiful but it is surrounded by thorns 

He says to the winds be still and they obey him 

Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the Earth 

Think not that I am come to destroy the law or the prophets I am 
not come to destroy but to fulfill 

Defer not charities till death he that does so is liberal rather of 
another man's wealth than his own 

Art thou in a dying condition there are footmarks in the slough 
footmarks in the dark valley 

She is an old stop stop never speak evil of the absent 

Robber I am a Thracian and a soldier 

Alexander A soldier a thief a plunderer an assassin the pest of 
the country I could honor thy courage but I must detest and punish 
thy crimes 

R Alexander I am your captive I must hear what you please to 
say and endure what you please to inflict but my soul is un conquered 
and if I reply at all to your reproaches I will reply like a free man 

Whereinsoever any is bold I speak foolishly I am bold also, are 
they hebrews so am I are they israelites so am I 

For modes of faith let graceless zealots fight 
his cant be wrong whose life is in the right 

Know natures children all divide her care 
the fur that warms a monarch warmed a bear 

Honor and shame from no condition rise 
act well your part There all the honor lies 



364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And was the ransom paid it was and paid 
What can exalt his bounty more for thee 

Or why so long in life if long can be 
lent heaven a parent to the poor and me 

Nor you ye proud to these impute the fault if memory o'er their 
tomb no trophies raise 

Poor sinful thirsty fainting souls are freely welcome here salva- 
tion like a river rolls abundant free and clear 

We all set a value on riches but Mexico is a long way off and its 
gold is hard to gain the Bible a far richer source of real wealth is at 
hand I will point out two texts that are worth a hundred Mexicos God 
is love Christ died for the ungodly 

Earthly happiness is sought by all the sage pursues it in his books 
and reflections the savage discerns it in the wilderness the prince 
views it sparkling in a crown the peasant beholds it in abundant 
crops of grain the sailor sees it in the ocean the soldier hears it in the 
stormy fight and the school boy and school girl hope to find it in a 
holiday. 

First comes the grateful sense ef our existence the heart beating 
pulse throbbing consciousness that we are breathing creatures endued 
with life we see hear smell taste and feel and are thrillingly suscepti- 
ble to what affords us pleasure we think reason anticipate remember 
and enjoy and are sensible that this glowing and grateful conscious- 
ness of our existence is the free gift of our heavenly father 

And next comes the elevating the ennobling knowledge that we 
are not like the beasts that perish but that our creator formed us in 
his own image breathed into us a spirit of life a living soul that shall 
never die what a gift is the gift of immortahty 

Sunrise and sunset cost us nothing all glowing and glorious as 
they are colors that are only to be seen in the heavens and brightness 
beyond description are profusely spread and we have sight to behold 
them pulses to throb hearts to beat and minds to contemplate with 
wonder thankfulness and joy 



VEESIFICATIOK. 365 



VERSIFICATION. 

Mr, S.—We will finish what we have to say about pros- 
ody by taking a general view of versification. 

Versification is a musical arrangement of words into 
lines called verses. 

The elements of verse are called poetic feet ; because the 
voice, by means of accent, steps along on them through the 
verse in a measured pace. 

There are in English four kinds of principal poetic feet; 
iambuses, trochees, anapests, and dactyls. There are also 
four kinds of secondary poetic feet; spondees, pyrrhics, 
amphibrachs, and tribrachs. Every iambus, trochee, spon- 
dee, and pyrrhic, consists of two syllables ; and each of the 
others contains three syllables. 

An iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
second accented. 

A trochee has the first syllable accented, and the second 
unaccented. 

An anapest has the third syllable accented, and the 
other two unaccented. 

A dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the other 
two unaccented. 

A spondee has both of its syllables accented. 

A pyrrhic has both of its syllables unaccented. 

An amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac- 
cented, and the middle one accented. 

A tribrach has all of its syllables unaccented. 

Poetic lines that consist of iambuses are called iambic 
verses ; those that consist of trochees, trochaic verses ; those 
that consist of anapests, anapestic verses; and those that 
consist of dactyls, dactylic verses. 



366 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

The seas I shall waste, | the skies | in smoke | decay, 
Rocks fall I to dust, | and mount | ains melt | away. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

Jesus ] sought me | when a | stranger, 
Wand'ring | from the [ fold of | God. 

ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace ; 
To your deep ( est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase; 
I would van | ish from ev j ery eye. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Say, shall we 1 yield him, in | costly de | votion, 

Odors of I Eden and | off 'rings di | vine? 
Gems of the | mountain and | pearls of the | ocean, 

Myrrh from the j forest and | gold from the | mine ? 

An iambic or a trochaic verse may consist of any num- 
ber of poetic feet from one to six, with an additional sylla- 
ble, occasionally, at the end of the line ; as you can see for 
yourselves by scanning these examples. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

Consenting, To me the rose 

Repenting. No longer glows. 

Repentance is, to leave 

The sins we did before ; 
And show that we do truly grieve 

By doing so no more. 

Come, tell me, blue-eyed stranger. 

Say, whither dost thou roam, 
P'er this wide world a ranger ? 

Hast thou no friends nor home ? 



VERSIFICATION. 367 

O Solitude ! now give me rest. 
And hush the tempest in my breast. 

Fop ever float that standard sheet ! 

Where breathes the foe but falls before us. 
With Freedom's soil beneath our feet. 

And Freedom's banner streaming o'er us ? 

But fixed his word, his saving power remains : 
Thy realm for ever last, thy own Messiah reigns. 

Grim Death, despairing, shakes his locks so gory: 
He cannot hold the Lord of life and glory. 

The midnight moon serenely smiles 

O'er nature's soft repose ; 
No lowering cloud obscures the sky, 

Nor ruffling tempest blows. 

J, — Should not this stanza be written in two lines rhym- 
ing with each other ? Then each line would consist of seven 
poetic feet. 

Mr. S. — Lines of such a length are inconvenient and in- 
elegant Good. poets seldom use longer lines than Alexan- 
drines. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

See them go On the mountain 

Through the snow. By a fountain, t 

In the days of old. On a bed of roses 

Fables plainly told. Sweetly she reposes. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought. 

Plumed conceit himself surveying. 
Folly with her shadow playing. 

Idle after dinner in his chair, 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 



368 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Fearless, honest, faithful, modest, and refined ; 
Truth's great champion, and the friend of all mankind. 

Sweetly she reposes on her lowly pillow : 
Gently lay her down beneath the weeping willow. 

The length of an apes tic and dactylic verse varies from 
one foot to four. Dactylic verse generally assumes one ad- 
ditional syllable, and sometimes two. 

ANAPESTIC VERSK 

But in vain, O ! how happy are they 

We complain. Who the Saviour obey ! 

When I think of my own native land 

In a moment I seem to be there ; 
But, alas ! recollection at hand 

Soon hurries me back to despair. 

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep. 

Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes. 
What is that which the breeze o'er the towering steep. 

As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? 
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam. 
In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream ! 
'Tis the star-spangled banner ! O ! long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave ! 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Friends may reprove None are more dutiful. 

Those that they love. Modest, or beautiful. 

Brightest and best of the sons of the morning. 
Dawn on our darkness, and lend us thine aid : 

Star of the east, the horizon adorning. 
Guide where the infant Redeemer is laid,* 



* Drill your pupils in distinguishing and scanning all the different kinds of 
verse, and in the proper use of the poetic pauses. Let them compare the examples 
given in their grammar with poetry in other hooks, till they can tell what kind of 
verse any poem that they read consists of, and can correctly use the poetic pause*. 



VERSIFICATIOK. 369 

Anapestic verse sometimes closes with an additional syl- 
lable, and frequently begins with an iambus; as, 

See trutJi, love, and mercy, in triumph descendin^r / 
And nniuxe all glowing in Eden's first bloom ! 

On the <!old cheek of death smiles and roses are blendiw^. 
And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. 

Iambic verse sometimes begins with a trochee ; ^ as, 

Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose, 
Quick as her eyes, and as unfixed as those : 
Favors to none, to all she smiles extends : 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 

Secondary poetic feet are never used to make entire 
verses ; but they are interspersed among the principal feet 
for the sake of variety and poetical expression ; as. 

That on weak uings from far pursues your flight. 

On the green hank to look into the clear 
Smooth lake that to me seemed another sky. 

See the hold youth strain up the threat'ning Bteep. 

Inmxmerahle before th' Almighty's throne. 

A poetic foot is a metrical element of a verse consisting 
of two or three syllables. 

A verse is a line of poetry, which consists of a certain 
number of poetic feet musically arranged. 

Ehyme is a correspondence in sound at the end of dif- 
ferent verses. 

A couplet is two verses united and rhyming with each 
other. 

A triplet is three verses united and rhyming with one 
another. 

Blank verse is poetry in which the lines do not rhyme. 



370 ENGLISH QBAMMAE. 

A stanza is a combination of several verses, varying in 
length and number, and rhyming differently. 

The stanzas of odes, ballads, psalms, and hymns, are 
generally called verses by illiterate people. 

A piece of poetry and poetry in general, is frequently 
called verse by our best speakers and writers. 

Meter is the poetical measure of verses. 

The meter of a psalm or hymn is long or short, common 
or particular. 

To scan is to divide verses into poetic feet. 

Melody, harmony, and poetic expression, are the three 
great objects of versification. 

Melody is a sweet succession of musical sounds. 

Harmony is the proper adaptation and correspondence 
of musical sounds to one another. 

Poetic expression is the proper adaptation and corres- 
pondence of sounds to the sense. 

Melody depends chiefly on the proper use of poetic feet 
in making single verses. Harmony depends upon the 
proper adaptation of different verses to each other, and 
their division into proportionate parts by cesural pauses. It 
is greatly promoted by rhyme and final pauses. If we omit 
the final pauses in reading blank verse, the hearer can 
hardly distinguish it from prose. Eead this without ob- 
serving them, and see for yourselves. 

/. — Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the 
world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly 
muse ! 

Mr. S. — Now use the final pauses, and observe the dif- 
ference in the harmony. 

J, — Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death unto the world, and all our wo, 



VEESIFICATIOI^. 371 

Witli loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 
Sing, heavenly muse. 

Mr, 8, — Because poetic pauses are tlie chief source of 
harmony in verse, we sometimes call them harmonic pauses. 
But the melody of verse, as well as its harmony, is greatly 
improved by cesural and demi-cesural pauses skilfully used. 
To give an iambic verse its sweetest melody, the cesura 
should be used at the end of the second, or of the third foot, 
or in the middle of the third ; as. 

My humble muse," in unambitious strains. 
Paints the green forest" and the flowery plains, 
Where peace, descending," bids her olive spring, 
And scatters blessings" from her dove-like vmig. 
Even I more sweetly pass" my careless days, 
Pleased in the silent shade" with empty praise; 
Enough for me," that to the listening swains 
First in these fields" I sung the sylvan strains, 

The first and lowest perception of harmony arises from 
comparing two members of the. same line with each other; 
and the next from comparing the members of a couplet, or 
two contiguous lines : the last and highest arises from com- 
paring a greater number of lines, and observing the relative 
proportion of the couplets to each other, and their similarity 
or diversity ; as, 

No grateful dews descend" from evening skies, 
Nor morning odors" from the flowers arise ; 
No rich perfumes" refresh the fruitful field, 
Nor fragrant herbs" their native incense yield. 
The balmy zephyrs," silent since her death. 
Lament the ceasing" of a sweeter breath ; 
The industrious bees" neglect their golden store ! 
Fair Daphne's dead," and sweetness is no more ! 

In this way, the comparison of verses variously appor- 
tioned by the different seats of the cesural pauses, may be 



372 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the source of a great variety of harmony, consistent with 
the finest melody. This is still more increased by the intro- 
duction of demi-cesural pauses; which double everywhere 
the terms of comparison; give a more distinct view of 
the whole and the parts; and afford new proportions of 
measurement, and an ampler scope for diversity and equal- 
ity, those sources of harmony and beauty ; as, 

All are but parts" of one stapendovis wliole. 
Whose body nature is," and God the soul ; 
That, changed through all," and yet in all the same ; 
Great in the earth" as in the ethereal frame ; 
Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze. 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees, 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent. 
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent ; 
Breathes' in our soul," informs' our mortal part, 
As full,' as perfect," in a hair' as heart ; 
As full,' as perfect," in vile man' that mourns. 
As the rapt seraph," that adores and burns. 

Pure iambic and trochaic verses have an excellent mel- 
ody; but they are not so melodious as anapestic or dactylic 
verses. This you can see for yourselves, by scanning or 
reading the examples that have been already given. But as 
the accent in such verses is always on every second or every 
third syllable, such uniformity would disgust the ear in a 
long succession. Therefore certain changes are made to 
produce variety without injuring the melody. For this pur- 
pose, trochees and secondary feet are sometimes used in 
iambic verse ; and iambuses in anapestic verse. By a proper 
intermixture of different kinds of feet we can improve 
poetic expression, as well as melody and harmony. In the 
following line the vast dimensions of Satan are shown by 
an uncommon succession of long syllables. 

So stretched out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 



VERSIFICATION. 373 

The actions described in the following couplet are imi- 
tated by the movement of each verse. 

Lights on liis feet ; as when a prowling wolf 
Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold. 

We naturally imitate different kinds of action and sound, 
and express different sentiments by different movements and 
modulations of the voice. Iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dac- 
tylic, and spondaic expressions prevail more or less even in 
common discourse. Poetic expression is therefore based on 
nat«re. This you can see for yourselves by reading a few 
examples. 

*Tis not enough no harshness gives offence, 

The sound must be an echo to the sense. 

Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows, 

And the smooth stream in smother numbers flows ; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar : 

When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw. 

The line too labors, and the words move slow : 

Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain. 

Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main. 

Loud sounds the ax, redoubling strokes on strokes ; 
On all sides round, the forest hurls her oaks 
Headlong. Deep echoing, groan the thickets brown; 
Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down. 

With many a weary step, and many a groan. 
Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone : 
The huge round stone, resulting with a bound. 
Thunders impetuous down, and smokes along the ground. 

A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 

That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. 



•374 EN^QLISH GRAMMAE. 



COlSrVERSATION X. 

THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

E. — Mr. Smith, will you explain the figures of speech ? 

Mr. S. — If I explain them all, I shall be obliged to go 
beyond the limits of grammar and lead you into rhetoric. 
We will divide them into two general classes ; grammatical 
and rhetorical figures. 

A grammatical figure is a deviation from the ordinary 
form or construction of words. 

The following are the principal grammatical figures: 
elision, enallage, syllepsis, pleonasm, ellipsis, and hyperbaton, 
or transposition. 

Elision is the omission of some letter or syllable. The 
principal use of elision is to contract two words or syllables 
into one ; as, e'en, o'er, don't, can't, shan't, I'll. 

Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 
Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 

True, conscious honor is, to feel no sin : 
He's arm'd without that's innocent within. 

'Tis education forms the common mind : 
Just as the twig is bend the tree's inclin'd. 

Enallage is the substitution of one word or one variation 
of a word for another. 

In common discourse, the singular pronoun thou is sel- 
dom used : the plural pronoun you is substituted for it, and 
verbs agree with it in the plural number. We is sometimes 
used for I by monarch s, editors, and public speakers. But 



THE FIGUEES OF SPEECH. 375 

this practice has not yet extended to all classes of society, 
like the use of you for thou. 

J. — We all say you instead of thou when we are talking 
with a single person. Then why is this a figure of speech ? 

Mr. /S.— Because it is a deviation from the original and 
appropriate use of this pronoun, and also a deviation from 
its present use in Scripture, poetry, and prayer. 

Enallage is so near allied to solecism that it should not 
be employed except in such expressions as are sanctioned by 
established usage or poetic license, like the following : 

Ourself will swiftness to your nerves impart, 
Ouraelf witli rising spirits swell your heart. 

Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 
Shall finish what his short-lived sire hegun. 

Syllepsis is the agreement of one word with another ac- 
cording to its figurative sense, and not according to its com- 
mon use ; as, " Show the house of Jacob their sins." " Be- 
hold, thy salvation cometli ; behold, his reward is with him^ 
^^ Science sheds her lucid ray." "Ask each blood-stained 
form his earthly name." " The Liglit himself shall shine." 

Pleonasm is the use of more words than the sense re- 
quires ; as, " He that is holy, let him be holy still." " Is 
there no physician there ? " " Death, and pain, and sorrow, 
are they all past ? " 

" Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage, what are they 9 " 

R. — Is it proper to use more words than the sense re- 
quires ? 

Mr. S. — It is proper, if we use them for the sake of em- 
phasis or euphony in such a manner as to make a sentence 
more expressive or elegant. There is a sort of responsive 
pleonasm, consisting in rhetorical echoes of the same 
thoughts expressed in different words, which is sometimes 
very beautiful ; as, " My head is filled with dew, and my 



376 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

locks with the drops of the night." " As a vesture thou 
shalt change them, and they shall be changed." 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words in a sen- 
tence ; as, " My head is filled with dew, and my locks [are 
filled] with the drops of the night." 

Some place the bliss in action, some [place it] in ease ; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these [call it]. 

Is he a chiircliman ? — then he's fond of power : 
A quaker ? — sly : a presbyteriau ? — sour. 

Transposition is the changing or reversing of the cus- 
tomary order of words in a sentence ; as, " Feet have tliey, 
but they walk not." " Jacob have / loved, but Esau have / 
hated." " Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt tliou return." 
" To the eye of Christian faith, the skies are always clear." 

A rhetorical figure is a deviation from the ordinary 
signification of words. 

The principal rhetorical figures are the following : simile, 
antithesis, metaphor, allegory, metonymy, synecdoche, per- 
sonification, apostrophe, erotesis, ecphonesis, irony, vision, 
hyperbole, and climax. 

As I define them give me a few examples of each figure. 

Simile is a figure in which similar objects are compared 
with each other, and their resemblance fully expressed. 

J. — Asahel was as light of foot as a wild roe. Who is 
she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, 
clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners. He 
shall be chased away as a vision of the night. The legs of 
the lame are unequal : so is a parable in the mouth of fools. 

R. — A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures 
of silver. His countenance was like lightning, and his 
raiment white as snow. The music of Carryl was like the 
memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the 
soul. 

Bright as the sun, her eyes the gazers strike ; 
And like the sun, they shine on all alike. 



THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 377 

Antithesis is a figure that is based, not on the resem- 
blance of objects or attributes, but on their dissimilarity, 
and consists in contrasted expressions. 

F. — We are fools for Christ's sake, but ye are wise in 
Christ; we are tcealcy but ye are strong ; ye are honorable, 
but we are despised. By honoi' and dishonor, by evil report 
and good report : as deceivers, and yet true ; as unJcnoiv7i, 
and yet well Jcnotvn; as dying, and behold, we live; as 
chastened, and not killed ; as sorrowful, yet always rejoic- 
ing j as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing ^ 
and yet possessing all things. 

He hangs between ; in doubt to act or rest ; 
In doubt to deem himself a god or beast ; 
In doubt his mind or body to prefer ; 
Born but to die, and reasoning but to err ; 
Alike in ignorance, his reason such. 
Whether he thinks too little or too much : 
Chaos of thought and passion all confused ; 
Still by himself abused, or disabused ; 
Created half to rise, and half to fall ; 
Great lord of all things, yet a 'prey to all ; 
Sole judge of irulli, in endless error hurled ; 
The glory, jest, and riddle of the world ! 

Metaphor is a figure based on resemblance, containing 
an implied comparison, and assigning the name or attributes 
of one thing to another that resembles it. 

H. — Thy word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my 
path. Thou art my roclc and my fortress. I was a father 
to the poor. I was eyes to the blind. The Lord is my 
shepherd ; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in 
green pastures : he leadeth me beside the still waters, 

'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 
And coming events cast their shadows before, 

D. — I am the rose of Sharon and the lily of the valleys. 
I am the root and the offspring of David and the bright 



378 ENGLISH QKAMMAR. 

and morning star. The Sim of Righteousness shall arise. 
The hud of acquaintance has burst into the bloom of 
friendship. 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain. 
That longs to leap into a bolder strain. 

Allegory is a figure in which one thing is represented by 
another that resembles it, and none of the literal meaning 
is expressed. 

This figure, taken in its widest sense, comprises fables, 
parables, and riddles. Many of our common sayings are 
short allegories. 

F. — Strike while the iron is hot. Make hay while the 
sun shines. When the horse is stolen the stable is locked. 
Cast not your pearls before swine. Some neglect the jewels 
to adorn the casket. Still waters are the deepest. The 
brightest sunshine casts the darkest shadow. The tree is 
known by its fruit. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

An allegory may consist of one short sentence, or a long 
discourse like those composed by Bunyan. There are many 
beautiful allegories in the Spectator and the Bible. 

if.— As similes, metaphors, and allegories, all depend on 
the resemblance of different things to one another, how can 
we distinguish them ? 

Mr. S. — In a simile we compare similar objects with 
each other, and generally use as, so, or like, to express their 
resemblance fully; as, "Youth is to life as the morning is 
to the day." " I was like ?i father to the poor." In a meta- 
phor the resemblance is not formally expressed, but implied: 
as, " Youth is the morning of life." " I was a father to the 



THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 379 

poor." In an allegory one thing is represented by another 
that resembles it, and the literal meaning is not expressed, 
but suggested to the imagination ; as, " Many a clear and 
pleasant morning is followed by a dark and stormy day." 
"Where roses were supposed to bloom nothing but briers 
and thorns grew." 

Allegorical and literal expressions should not be mixed; 
nor should an allegory be so obscure and dark as to conceal 
the literal meaning, unless a riddle is intended. Metaphors 
should be adapted to the subject, and consistent, natural, 
easy, graceful, and spontaneous. They should come of their 
own accord, and be entirely free from affectation and re- 
straint. They should not be too often used nor too long, 
continued. Mixed metaphors should always be avoided. 
Similes should be founded on such resemblances as are easily 
understood, and such as properly embellish and illustrate 
the subject. They should not be far-fetched, nor overdrawn, 
nor used too often. This remark may also be applied to 
other figures of speech, especially to antitheses; which 
should be used more sparingly and with less affectation than 
is done by some writers, who are so delighted with contrasted 
expressions that they generally set their words in battle 
array. 

Metonymy is a figure that is founded on the relations of 
cause and effect, container and what is contained, sign and 
thing signified, ancestor and descendants, and consists in 
using the name of one for that of the other. 

W. — He found her reading Plato, The Jcettle boils. 
The scepter shall not depart from Judali. All the city was 
gathered together at the door. So Saul died, and his three 
sons, and all his liouse died together. 

J.^Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his 
vine and under his fig-tree. They have Moses and the 
propJiets. Gray hairs should be respected. The treasury 
bench trembled at the name of Pitt. The pen is mightier 



380 EKQLISn GRAMMAR. 

than the sioord. The pulpit and the press have greater 
power than all the kings and emperors in the vvorld. 

How lias kind Heaven adorned this happy land, 
And scattered blessings with a wasteful hand ! 
Blossoms and fruits and flowers together rise, 
And the whole year in gay confusion lies. 

Synecdoche is such a use of a word as makes it mean 
more or less than it literally signifies. 

We sometimes use the name of a part when we mean 
the whole, or that of an attribute when we mean the persons 
or things that it belongs to, or the singular number for the 
plural, the name of the genus for that of the species, a defi- 
nite number for an indefinite one, etc. All such uses of 
words belong to this figure of speech. 

F, — He is a good hand to do such work. We have fifty 
head of cattle. Why looks your Grace so heavily to-day ? 
He has borne me on his back a thousand times! Is that 
heast [horse] your own ? G-ive the poor creature something 
to eat. That/orw with eye so dark and cheeh so fair. May 
it please your Majesty, your Excellency, etc. 

No sleep till morn when youth and beauty meet. 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 

Personification is a figure by which we attribute life and 
action to inanimate things, or personality to irrational 
creatures. 

J. — The ground thirsts for rain. The fields smile wdth 
plenty. If you tickle the earth with a hoe, she will laugh 
with a bountiful harvest. The wilderness and the solitary 
place shall be glad for them, and the desert shall rejoice 
and blossom as the rose. 

Look down, moon, refulgent queen of night ; 
With smiling face behold the lovely sight. 



THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 381 

Apostrophe is a sudden turning off in a discourse to 
address the absent or the dead as if they were present. 

iV. — How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the bat- 
tle ! Jonathan, thou wast slain in thine high places. I 
am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan. 

But hark ! through the fast-flashing- lightning of war. 
What steed to the desert flies frantic and far? 
'Tis thine, oh Glenullin ! whose bride shall await. 
Like a love-lighted watchfire, all night at the gate. 
A steed comes at morning : no rider is there ; 
But his bridle is red with the sign of despair. 
Weep Ablin ! to death and captivity led ! 
Oh weep ! but thy tears cannot number the dead : 
For a merciless sword on Culloden shall wave, 
Culloden ! that reeks with the blood of the brave ! 

Erotesis is a figure by which we express in the form of a 
question what we would very earnestly affirm or deny. 

J. — Have they not heard ? Did not Israel know ? Doth 
not wisdom cry ? and understanding put forth her voice ? 
Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? 
Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his 
neck with thunder ? Canst thou guide Arcturus with his 
sons ? How can we escape, if we neglect so great salvation ? 

To purchase heaven has gold the power ? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour? 
In life can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ? 

i2.— Is not erotesis what is generally called interroga- 
tion? 

Mr. ^S'.— Erotesis is a peculiar kind of interrogation, 
which is equivalent to a very strong affirmation or denial, 
and to which no answer is expected. It is the figurative 
use of interrogation. When we speak literally we expect 
answers to the questions that we ask. Such interrogation is 
not erotesis. 



383 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ecphonesis is ah animated or passionate expression of 
emotion. 

This figure is commonly called exclamation ; but ecpho- 
nesis is its appropriate scientific name. 

E, — vain and inconstant world! fleeting and tran- 
sient life ! How many rosy cheeks turn pale ! How many 
lovely forms fade away into the tomb ! 

Irony is such a use of words as reverses their literal 
meaning. 

P. — Is irony consistent with truth and candor ? When 
we use such words as signify the very reverse of what we 
mean, do we not tell a falsehood? 

Mr. 8. — I think not, because nobody is deceived; for 
when we make a proper use of this figure, it is evident to all 
that we address, that we mean the very reverse of what our 
words literally signify. This meaning is readily understood 
even by children. One child frequently reproves another 
ironically. Irony has been used in every age and nation by 
philosophers, orators, and poets. We find it occasionally in 
the Bible. 

H. — When he is drunk he is a beautiful creature, and 
he knows that every one admires him. He takes especial 
pains to make a fine appearance and display his talents. 
He is wiser than Solomon, more eloquent than Cicero, 
stronger than Sampson, and richer than Cresus. His debts 
are all paid, (except what he owes for the last drink,) and 
he can lend his cronies all the money that they want. 

G. — excellent interpreter of the law! master of an- 
tiquity! corrector and amender of our constitution ! 

Go, wondrous creature ! mount where science guides, 
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides ; 
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run, 
Correct old Time, and regulate the sun ; 
Go, soar with Plato to the empyreal sphere, 
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair ! 



THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 383 

Or tread the mazy rounds his followers trod. 
And quitting sense call imitating God ; 
As Eastern priest in giddy circles run. 
And turn their heads to imitate the sun. 
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule — 
Then drop into thyself, and be a fool I 

Vision is a figure by which we describe past or future, or 
imaginary actions or events, as if they were present and 
actually taking place before our eyes. 

R. — I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, 
lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The 
furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, 
with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries. 

Lochiel, Lochiel ! beware of the day, 
When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array I 
For a field of the dead rushes red oh my sight. 
And the Clans of Culloden are scattered in flight : 
They rally, they bleed, for their kingdom and crown ; 
Wo, wo to the riders that trample them down ! 
Proud Cumberland prances, insulting the slain, 
And their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the plain. 

Hyperbole is a figure that consists in exaggeration caused 
by passion or excitement. 

H. — They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger 
than lions. Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which 
is by the sea in multitude. 

W. — I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear, a 
blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon. He sat on the 
shore like a cloud of mist on the hills. 

Jove's thunder roars, heaven trembles all around. 
Blue Neptune storms, the bellowing deeps resound ; 
Earth shakes her nodding towers, the ground gives way, 
And the pale ghosts start at the flash of day. 



384 ENGLISH GHAMMAB. Z^f/ 

Climax is a figure in which a sentence or discourse rises 
step by step in importance, force, or dignity. 

(?.— Clarence is come ! fiilse, fleeting, perjured Clarence! 
It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds; it is the 
height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to 
put him to death : what name then shall I give to the act 
of crucifying him ? 

Gentlemen, if one man had anyhow slain another; if an 
adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occasioned the 
death of her enemy; even these criminals would have been 
capitally punished : but if this guiltless infant, that could 
make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, what 
punishment would not then the mother have demanded? 
with what cries and exclamations would she have stunned 
your ears ! What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty 
of homicide, a mother, guilty of the murder of her innocent 
child, has comprised all these misdeeds in a single crime ? — 
a crime, in its own nature, detestable ; in a woman, pro- 
digious; in a mother, incredible; and perpetrated against 
one whose age called for compassion, whose near relation 
claimed aj0fection, and whose innocence deserved the highest 
favor. * 



* Drill your pupils in selecting examples of the figures of speech in the manner 
here presented ; keeping their attention fixed on but one figure at a time tUl they 
all understand it thoroughly. Let them select examples from their own composi- 
tions and their conversation, as well as from the books they read ; and they will 
soon learn the nature and the use of every figure of speech. 



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